Fully computational design of PAM-relaxed Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 with expanded targeting capability

Article activity feed

1. 

   eLife

   Mar 25, 2026

   eLife Assessment

   This important study demonstrates the power of the UniDesign computational framework in prospectively engineering a PAM-relaxed Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 variant with editing performance comparable to evolution-derived counterparts. The authors provide convincing evidence through rigorous biochemical validation across multiple human cell types, comprehensive deep-sequencing analyses, and direct comparisons with established variants, providing mechanistic insights into PAM specificity remodeling and Cas9 optimization. By establishing computational design as a viable alternative to directed evolution for CRISPR systems, this work will be of broad interest to the protein engineering, genome engineering, synthetic biology, and computational protein design communities.

   Read the original source
2. 

   eLife

   Mar 25, 2026

   Reviewer #1 (Public review):

   Summary:

   This manuscript by Xiong and colleagues presents a compelling validation of UniDesign, a fully computational protein design framework, by using it to engineer a novel, PAM-relaxed variant of Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 (SaCas9) named KRH. The core achievement is the successful de novo generation of a high-performance nuclease (E782K/N968R/R1015H) solely through in silico modeling, without any subsequent experimental optimization or directed evolution. The authors demonstrate that KRH expands the SaCas9 PAM specificity from NNGRRT to NNNRRT, achieving genome editing and base editing efficiencies across multiple human cell types that are comparable to, and sometimes exceed, the well-known evolution-derived KKH variant. The work positions UniDesign not merely as an analytical tool, but as a powerful …

   Reviewer #1 (Public review):

   Summary:

   This manuscript by Xiong and colleagues presents a compelling validation of UniDesign, a fully computational protein design framework, by using it to engineer a novel, PAM-relaxed variant of Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 (SaCas9) named KRH. The core achievement is the successful de novo generation of a high-performance nuclease (E782K/N968R/R1015H) solely through in silico modeling, without any subsequent experimental optimization or directed evolution. The authors demonstrate that KRH expands the SaCas9 PAM specificity from NNGRRT to NNNRRT, achieving genome editing and base editing efficiencies across multiple human cell types that are comparable to, and sometimes exceed, the well-known evolution-derived KKH variant. The work positions UniDesign not merely as an analytical tool, but as a powerful engine for the generative design of complex molecular functions, offering a scalable and mechanistically insightful alternative to traditional experimental screening.

   Strengths:

   This is an outstanding manuscript that serves as a powerful proof-of-concept for the next generation of computational protein design. The primary selling point-the raw predictive and generative power of UniDesign-is convincingly demonstrated throughout.

   The manuscript shows that the tool can:
   (1) successfully navigate a complex sequence landscape to identify a minimal set of three mutations (KRH) that remodel a critical protein-DNA interface;
   (2) accurately model and balance the delicate interplay between specific base contacts and non-specific backbone interactions to achieve relaxed PAM specificity;
   (3) deliver a final product whose performance is indistinguishable from, and in some cases superior to, a variant that required extensive wet-lab evolution.

   The experimental validation is rigorous, thorough, and directly supports the computational predictions. This work will stand as a landmark study for the field, illustrating that computational design has matured to the point where it can reliably generate sophisticated tools for genome engineering.

   (1) Demonstration of Generative Power:

   The most significant finding is that UniDesign, without any experimental feedback, generated a variant (KRH) that matches the performance of the evolution-derived KKH. This is a remarkable achievement. The iterative design strategy-first reducing PAM bias (R1015H), then restoring binding through non-specific interactions (e.g., N968R, E782K)-is a textbook example of rational design, but it is executed entirely by the algorithm. This validates UniDesign's energy function and search algorithm as capable of capturing the subtle biophysical principles governing PAM recognition.

   (2) Mechanistic Insight as a Built-in Feature:

   A key advantage of UniDesign highlighted by this work is its inherent ability to provide mechanistic explanations. The computational models not only predicted which mutations would work (e.g., N968R over N968K in the KRH variant) but also why they work. The structural and energetic analyses showing the bidentate salt bridge formed by Arg968 versus the single bond formed by Lys968 (Figure 4A) is a perfect example of how the tool's output can rationalize functional differences, a level of insight that is rarely attainable from directed evolution campaigns alone.

   (3) Scalability and Accessibility for Engineering:

   The authors explicitly contrast UniDesign's efficiency (minutes to hours per design run) with the computational expense of methods like COMET and the experimental overhead of directed evolution. The improvements to UniDesign v1.2, specifically the mutation-count and sequence-uniqueness penalties, directly address a key challenge in computational design (generating diverse, low-energy point-mutant libraries). This positions the tool as a highly accessible and scalable platform for engineering other CRISPR systems, a point that will be of immense interest to the community.

   Weaknesses:

   (1) Title and Abstract Emphasis:

   The title and abstract are effective but could be slightly sharpened to emphasize the primary message. Consider a title like "Fully computational design of a PAM-relaxed SaCas9 variant with UniDesign demonstrates power to match directed evolution." The abstract could more explicitly state upfront that the design was achieved without any experimental iteration.

   (2) Figure 1, Panel M:

   The data points in panel M are currently presented at a font size that makes them difficult to read, particularly the labels for the many triple-mutant variants. This density obscures the clear identification of the top-performing designs, such as the KRH variant selected for experimental validation. I recommend that the authors increase the font size of all text elements within this panel, including axis labels, tick marks, and data point labels, to improve legibility. If necessary, the panel dimensions can be adjusted or the layout reorganized to accommodate the larger text without compromising clarity. Ensuring this figure is readable is important, as it visually communicates the energetic convergence that led to the selection of KRH.

   (3) Generality of the Design Strategy for Other PAM Positions:

   The design strategy focused on relaxing specificity at the highly constrained third position of the PAM (the guanine in NNGRRT). How transferable is this specific strategy (i.e., disrupting a key specific contact and compensating with non-specific backbone binders) to relaxing other positions in the PAM or to other Cas enzymes with different PAM-interaction architectures? A short discussion on this point would help readers understand the broader applicability of the "fine-tuning the balance" principle.

   Read the original source
3. 

   eLife

   Mar 25, 2026

   Reviewer #2 (Public review):

   Summary:

   This manuscript describes the fully in silico design of a new variant of Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 (SaCas9) using an improved UniDesign workflow.

   The design strategy consists of three sequential steps:
   (1) reducing positional bias at PAM position 3;
   (2) restoring DNA binding through nonspecific interactions;
   (3) combining individually favorable substitutions.

   The overall pipeline is conceptually elegant and logically structured, and the genome-editing activity of the designed variants is comprehensively characterized. The resulting KRH variant exhibits relaxed PAM specificity, expanding the targeting range of SaCas9 across diverse cell types. Notably, the KRH variant demonstrates performance comparable to that of the evolution-derived KKH variant, underscoring the effectiveness of the proposed …

   Reviewer #2 (Public review):

   Summary:

   This manuscript describes the fully in silico design of a new variant of Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 (SaCas9) using an improved UniDesign workflow.

   The design strategy consists of three sequential steps:
   (1) reducing positional bias at PAM position 3;
   (2) restoring DNA binding through nonspecific interactions;
   (3) combining individually favorable substitutions.

   The overall pipeline is conceptually elegant and logically structured, and the genome-editing activity of the designed variants is comprehensively characterized. The resulting KRH variant exhibits relaxed PAM specificity, expanding the targeting range of SaCas9 across diverse cell types. Notably, the KRH variant demonstrates performance comparable to that of the evolution-derived KKH variant, underscoring the effectiveness of the proposed computational design framework.

   Strengths:

   The design pipeline is entirely computational and does not rely on experimental data for pretraining or iterative optimization.

   Weaknesses:

   The computationally generated KRH mutant differs from the experimentally evolved KKH variant by only a single residue, which may reflect insufficient exploration of the available sequence space.

   Read the original source
4. 

   eLife

   Mar 25, 2026

   Reviewer #3 (Public review):

   Summary:

   This study reports KRH, a SaCas9 variant computationally engineered via UniDesign to recognize an expanded NNNRRT PAM with substantially enhanced editing efficiency at non-canonical sites. KRH achieves genome- and base-editing efficiencies comparable to or exceeding the evolution-derived KKH variant across multiple human cell types, demonstrating that computational design can effectively remodel PAM specificity while preserving nuclease activity.

   Strengths:

   The research follows a clear line of reasoning, and the results appear sound. The computational design strategy presented offers a valuable alternative to directed evolution, with potential applicability beyond Cas9 engineering.

   Weaknesses:

   The benchmarking of the UniDesign method is insufficient. How its performance compares to other protein …

   Reviewer #3 (Public review):

   Summary:

   This study reports KRH, a SaCas9 variant computationally engineered via UniDesign to recognize an expanded NNNRRT PAM with substantially enhanced editing efficiency at non-canonical sites. KRH achieves genome- and base-editing efficiencies comparable to or exceeding the evolution-derived KKH variant across multiple human cell types, demonstrating that computational design can effectively remodel PAM specificity while preserving nuclease activity.

   Strengths:

   The research follows a clear line of reasoning, and the results appear sound. The computational design strategy presented offers a valuable alternative to directed evolution, with potential applicability beyond Cas9 engineering.

   Weaknesses:

   The benchmarking of the UniDesign method is insufficient. How its performance compares to other protein design algorithms, whether the energy function parameters were systematically optimized, and if the design strategy can be generalized to other Cas9 orthologs or genome engineering tasks.

   Read the original source
5. 

   eLife

   Mar 25, 2026

   Author Response:

   Public Reviews:

   Reviewer #1 (Public review):

   Summary:

   This manuscript by Xiong and colleagues presents a compelling validation of UniDesign, a fully computational protein design framework, by using it to engineer a novel, PAM-relaxed variant of Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 (SaCas9) named KRH. The core achievement is the successful de novo generation of a high-performance nuclease (E782K/N968R/R1015H) solely through in silico modeling, without any subsequent experimental optimization or directed evolution. The authors demonstrate that KRH expands the SaCas9 PAM specificity from NNGRRT to NNNRRT, achieving genome editing and base editing efficiencies across multiple human cell types that are comparable to, and sometimes exceed, the well-known evolution-derived KKH variant. The work positions UniDesign not merely as an …

   Author Response:

   Public Reviews:

   Reviewer #1 (Public review):

   Summary:

   This manuscript by Xiong and colleagues presents a compelling validation of UniDesign, a fully computational protein design framework, by using it to engineer a novel, PAM-relaxed variant of Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 (SaCas9) named KRH. The core achievement is the successful de novo generation of a high-performance nuclease (E782K/N968R/R1015H) solely through in silico modeling, without any subsequent experimental optimization or directed evolution. The authors demonstrate that KRH expands the SaCas9 PAM specificity from NNGRRT to NNNRRT, achieving genome editing and base editing efficiencies across multiple human cell types that are comparable to, and sometimes exceed, the well-known evolution-derived KKH variant. The work positions UniDesign not merely as an analytical tool, but as a powerful engine for the generative design of complex molecular functions, offering a scalable and mechanistically insightful alternative to traditional experimental screening.

   Strengths:

   This is an outstanding manuscript that serves as a powerful proof-of-concept for the next generation of computational protein design. The primary selling point-the raw predictive and generative power of UniDesign-is convincingly demonstrated throughout.

   The manuscript shows that the tool can:

   (1) successfully navigate a complex sequence landscape to identify a minimal set of three mutations (KRH) that remodel a critical protein-DNA interface;

   (2) accurately model and balance the delicate interplay between specific base contacts and non-specific backbone interactions to achieve relaxed PAM specificity;

   (3) deliver a final product whose performance is indistinguishable from, and in some cases superior to, a variant that required extensive wet-lab evolution.

   The experimental validation is rigorous, thorough, and directly supports the computational predictions. This work will stand as a landmark study for the field, illustrating that computational design has matured to the point where it can reliably generate sophisticated tools for genome engineering.

   (1) Demonstration of Generative Power:

   The most significant finding is that UniDesign, without any experimental feedback, generated a variant (KRH) that matches the performance of the evolution-derived KKH. This is a remarkable achievement. The iterative design strategy-first reducing PAM bias (R1015H), then restoring binding through non-specific interactions (e.g., N968R, E782K)-is a textbook example of rational design, but it is executed entirely by the algorithm. This validates UniDesign's energy function and search algorithm as capable of capturing the subtle biophysical principles governing PAM recognition.

   (2) Mechanistic Insight as a Built-in Feature:

   A key advantage of UniDesign highlighted by this work is its inherent ability to provide mechanistic explanations. The computational models not only predicted which mutations would work (e.g., N968R over N968K in the KRH variant) but also why they work. The structural and energetic analyses showing the bidentate salt bridge formed by Arg968 versus the single bond formed by Lys968 (Figure 4A) is a perfect example of how the tool's output can rationalize functional differences, a level of insight that is rarely attainable from directed evolution campaigns alone.

   (3) Scalability and Accessibility for Engineering:

   The authors explicitly contrast UniDesign's efficiency (minutes to hours per design run) with the computational expense of methods like COMET and the experimental overhead of directed evolution. The improvements to UniDesign v1.2, specifically the mutation-count and sequence-uniqueness penalties, directly address a key challenge in computational design (generating diverse, low-energy point-mutant libraries). This positions the tool as a highly accessible and scalable platform for engineering other CRISPR systems, a point that will be of immense interest to the community.

   We sincerely thank the reviewer for the comprehensive summary and the highly positive and encouraging comments on our manuscript.

   Weaknesses:

   (1) Title and Abstract Emphasis: The title and abstract are effective but could be slightly sharpened to emphasize the primary message. Consider a title like "Fully computational design of a PAM-relaxed SaCas9 variant with UniDesign demonstrates power to match directed evolution." The abstract could more explicitly state upfront that the design was achieved without any experimental iteration.

   We thank the reviewer for these valuable suggestions. We agree that our current title and abstract may be overly objective and neutral, and we will consider refining them during the formal revision.

   (2) Figure 1, Panel M: The data points in panel M are currently presented at a font size that makes them difficult to read, particularly the labels for the many triple-mutant variants. This density obscures the clear identification of the top-performing designs, such as the KRH variant selected for experimental validation. I recommend that the authors increase the font size of all text elements within this panel, including axis labels, tick marks, and data point labels, to improve legibility. If necessary, the panel dimensions can be adjusted or the layout reorganized to accommodate the larger text without compromising clarity. Ensuring this figure is readable is important, as it visually communicates the energetic convergence that led to the selection of KRH.

   We thank the reviewer for these valuable suggestions. We will refine the Fig. 1M during the formal revision.

   (3) Generality of the Design Strategy for Other PAM Positions:

   The design strategy focused on relaxing specificity at the highly constrained third position of the PAM (the guanine in NNGRRT). How transferable is this specific strategy (i.e., disrupting a key specific contact and compensating with non-specific backbone binders) to relaxing other positions in the PAM or to other Cas enzymes with different PAM-interaction architectures? A short discussion on this point would help readers understand the broader applicability of the "fine-tuning the balance" principle.

   We thank the reviewer for this insightful question and suggestion. The current study builds upon our previous work on CRISPR–Cas PAM recognition modeling using UniDesign (PMID: 37078688), in which eight Cas9 proteins and two Cas12 proteins (each has a different PAM) were investigated. Our computational results demonstrated that UniDesign effectively captures the mutual preferences between natural PAMs and native PAM-interacting amino acids (PIAAs). For example, UniDesign accurately predicted the canonical PAMs of SpCas9 and SaCas9 as NGG and NNGRRT, respectively; conversely, given their canonical PAMs, UniDesign successfully recapitulated the corresponding PIAAs in both systems.

   These findings provide the foundation for the present study and motivate our selection of SaCas9 as a representative system to explore PAM relaxation, thereby further demonstrating UniDesign’s predictive power through experimental validation. Although we did not perform similar PAM relaxation designs for other Cas9 or Cas12 proteins, we believe that the UniDesign framework is broadly generalizable and can be readily extended to these systems. We will include additional discussion to clarify this point and highlight the broader applicability of our design strategy.

   Reviewer #2 (Public review):

   Summary:

   This manuscript describes the fully in silico design of a new variant of Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 (SaCas9) using an improved UniDesign workflow.

   The design strategy consists of three sequential steps:

   (1) reducing positional bias at PAM position 3;

   (2) restoring DNA binding through nonspecific interactions;

   (3) combining individually favorable substitutions.

   The overall pipeline is conceptually elegant and logically structured, and the genome-editing activity of the designed variants is comprehensively characterized. The resulting KRH variant exhibits relaxed PAM specificity, expanding the targeting range of SaCas9 across diverse cell types. Notably, the KRH variant demonstrates performance comparable to that of the evolution-derived KKH variant, underscoring the effectiveness of the proposed computational design framework.

   Strengths:

   The design pipeline is entirely computational and does not rely on experimental data for pretraining or iterative optimization.

   We thank the reviewer for the concise and accurate summary of our manuscript.

   Weaknesses:

   The computationally generated KRH mutant differs from the experimentally evolved KKH variant by only a single residue, which may reflect insufficient exploration of the available sequence space.

   We thank the reviewer for this insightful critique. In the present study, our strategy was not to allow UniDesign to freely explore all 27 mutable positions simultaneously, but rather to constrain the search to point mutations (e.g., double or triple mutants) within the full sequence space (approximately 20^27). Even with this constraint, UniDesign effectively samples a substantially large design space compared to traditional protein engineering approaches.

   Through iterative design, we observed that only certain residue types became enriched at a subset of positions when identifying effective double mutants. These enriched residues were then systematically combined to generate performance-enhancing triple mutants in an automated manner. Although we ultimately selected the KRH mutant for experimental validation due to its high similarity to the known KKH variant, UniDesign also proposed additional multi-mutants that are distinct from KKH.

   Reviewer #3 (Public review):

   Summary:

   This study reports KRH, a SaCas9 variant computationally engineered via UniDesign to recognize an expanded NNNRRT PAM with substantially enhanced editing efficiency at non-canonical sites. KRH achieves genome- and base-editing efficiencies comparable to or exceeding the evolution-derived KKH variant across multiple human cell types, demonstrating that computational design can effectively remodel PAM specificity while preserving nuclease activity.

   Strengths:

   The research follows a clear line of reasoning, and the results appear sound. The computational design strategy presented offers a valuable alternative to directed evolution, with potential applicability beyond Cas9 engineering.

   We thank the reviewer for the concise and accurate summary of our manuscript.

   Weaknesses:

   The benchmarking of the UniDesign method is insufficient. How its performance compares to other protein design algorithms, whether the energy function parameters were systematically optimized, and if the design strategy can be generalized to other Cas9 orthologs or genome engineering tasks.

   We thank the reviewer for this valuable critique. The present study builds upon our previous work on CRISPR–Cas PAM recognition modeling using UniDesign (PMID: 37078688), in which many of these concerns were systematically addressed. In that study, UniDesign was benchmarked against Rosetta, a well-established protein design platform, across eight Cas9 proteins and two Cas12 proteins, each recognizing distinct PAM sequences.

   Our results demonstrated that UniDesign effectively captures the mutual preferences between natural PAMs and native PAM-interacting amino acids (PIAAs) across these CRISPR–Cas systems. For example, UniDesign accurately predicted the canonical PAMs of SpCas9 and SaCas9 as NGG and NNGRRT, respectively; conversely, given their canonical PAMs, UniDesign successfully recapitulated the corresponding PIAAs in both systems.

   These findings provide the foundation for the present study and motivate our selection of SaCas9 as a representative system to explore PAM relaxation, thereby further demonstrating UniDesign’s predictive power through experimental validation. Although we did not perform analogous PAM relaxation designs for other Cas9 or Cas12 proteins in this work, we believe that the UniDesign framework is broadly generalizable and can be readily extended to these systems. We will incorporate additional discussion in the revised manuscript to address these points and clarify the broader applicability of our approach.

   Read the original source
6. 

   Version published to 10.7554/elife.110906.1 on eLife

   Mar 25, 2026
7. 

   Version published to 10.7554/elife.110906 on eLife

   Mar 25, 2026
8. 

   Version published to 10.64898/2025.12.25.696548 on bioRxiv

   Dec 26, 2025