Optics-free reconstruction of shapes, images and volumes with DNA barcode proximity graphs
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eLife Assessment
This important technical study introduces SCOPE, an optics-free spatial reconstruction method based on bidirectional sender and receiver oligonucleotides on barcoded hydrogel beads. By sequencing proximity-encoded chimeric molecules, the authors computationally reconstruct 2D and 3D spatial information at an impressive scale. The technical demonstrations in synthetic bead systems are convincing and establish proof-of-principle that large spatial domains can be reconstructed without microscopy. The methodological advance is clear and the scale is impressive. Direct validation in biological samples would help clarify what additional limitations on applicability may exist. This work will be of interest to those working on spatial mapping.
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Abstract
Spatial genomics technologies include imaging- and sequencing-based methods. Sequencing-based spatial methods typically require surfaces coated with coordinate-associated DNA barcodes, but the physical registration of these barcodes to spatial coordinates is challenging, necessitating either high density printing of oligonucleotides or in situ sequencing/probing of randomly deposited, DNA-barcode-bearing beads. As a consequence, the surface areas available to sequencing-based spatial genomic methods are constrained by the time, labor, cost and instrumentation required to either print or decode a coordinate-tagged surface. To address this challenge, we developed SCOPE (Spatial reConstruction via Oligonucleotide Proximity Encoding), an optics-free, DNA microscopy-inspired method. With SCOPE, the relative positions of DNA-barcoded beads within a 2D shape, 2D image or 3D volume are inferred from the ex situ sequencing of chimeric molecules formed from diffusing “sender” and tethered “receiver” oligonucleotides. To demonstrate the potential of this approach, we applied SCOPE to reconstruct 2D shapes, 2D images or 3D volumes defined by 104-106 x 20-100 µm DNA barcoded beads, including an asymmetric “swoosh” resembling the Nike logo (44 mm2), a “color” Snellen eye chart (704 mm2) and the surface topology of 3D molds of a teddy bear, star, butterfly or block letter (75-100 mm3). Each of the resulting “DNA barcode proximity graphs” was computationally reconstructed in an automated fashion, across fields of view and at resolutions that were determined by sequencing depth, bead size and diffusion kinetics, rather than by microarray or microscope instrument time. Because the ground truth shapes are known, these datasets may be particularly useful for the further development of computational algorithms by this nascent field.
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eLife Assessment
This important technical study introduces SCOPE, an optics-free spatial reconstruction method based on bidirectional sender and receiver oligonucleotides on barcoded hydrogel beads. By sequencing proximity-encoded chimeric molecules, the authors computationally reconstruct 2D and 3D spatial information at an impressive scale. The technical demonstrations in synthetic bead systems are convincing and establish proof-of-principle that large spatial domains can be reconstructed without microscopy. The methodological advance is clear and the scale is impressive. Direct validation in biological samples would help clarify what additional limitations on applicability may exist. This work will be of interest to those working on spatial mapping.
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Reviewer #1 (Public review):
Summary:
Liao et al. present SCOPE (Spatial reConstruction via Oligonucleotide Proximity Encoding), a method for reconstructing spatial organization from diffusion-defined DNA barcode interactions without the use of optical imaging. In SCOPE, hydrogel beads bearing unique DNA barcodes contain both "sender" and "receiver" oligonucleotides. Upon enzymatic release, sender oligos diffuse locally and hybridize to receiver oligos on neighboring beads, forming chimeric molecules that encode spatial proximity. Sequencing these products yields an interaction matrix, which is then used to reconstruct a spatial coordinate map.
The authors demonstrate reconstruction of synthetic two-dimensional shapes, a large multicolor Snellen eye chart, and the interior surface of three-dimensional molds. The work expands the …Reviewer #1 (Public review):
Summary:
Liao et al. present SCOPE (Spatial reConstruction via Oligonucleotide Proximity Encoding), a method for reconstructing spatial organization from diffusion-defined DNA barcode interactions without the use of optical imaging. In SCOPE, hydrogel beads bearing unique DNA barcodes contain both "sender" and "receiver" oligonucleotides. Upon enzymatic release, sender oligos diffuse locally and hybridize to receiver oligos on neighboring beads, forming chimeric molecules that encode spatial proximity. Sequencing these products yields an interaction matrix, which is then used to reconstruct a spatial coordinate map.
The authors demonstrate reconstruction of synthetic two-dimensional shapes, a large multicolor Snellen eye chart, and the interior surface of three-dimensional molds. The work expands the conceptual and experimental landscape of optics-free spatial sequencing.Strengths:
SCOPE employs bidirectional sender and receiver oligonucleotides on every bead, rather than using asymmetric transmitter-receiver architectures found in other diffusion-based methods. The symmetric design may improve detection sensitivity and reconstruction strategies, and represents a meaningful variation on optics-free spatial encoding.
A notable strength of this study is the physical scale achieved. The authors reconstruct a Snellen chart spanning approximately 704 mm² and demonstrate molded 3D structures on the order of 75-100 mm³. Although some larger-scale warping is evident, and is discussed as potentially due to non-uniform diffusion, the relative local positioning across these large areas appears impressively accurate.
The authors extend reconstruction beyond two-dimensional arrays to three-dimensional molded surfaces. This demonstrates that the assay and the computational methods for interpreting proximity graphs can support non-planar spatial relationships, expanding the scope of optics-free spatial inference.
Weaknesses:
Although the method is discussed in the context of spatial genomics and potential tissue applications, it is currently demonstrated only on engineered two-dimensional bead arrays and three-dimensional shapes fabricated in molds. It remains unclear how SCOPE would perform in heterogeneous biological environments, where diffusion may exhibit additional non-uniformities. A biological proof-of-concept, even limited in scope, would help define the method's strengths and limitations more clearly.
The reconstruction of three-dimensional structures lacks strong sampling from volume interiors. This is speculated to be due to several possible factors; however, this limitation constrains the method to reconstruction of volume surfaces rather than comprehensive three-dimensional profiling.
The reconstruction workflow involves multiple preprocessing steps and embedding choices. While these appear to work well for synthetic shapes with known geometry, it is less clear how parameter choices would be made in contexts where ground truth is unknown. Clarifying how reconstruction robustness is assessed without prior knowledge of spatial structure would help readers understand how the method could be practically deployed, particularly in more heterogeneous tissue contexts.
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Author response:
Public Reviews:
Reviewer #1 (Public review):
Summary:
Liao et al. present SCOPE (Spatial reConstruction via Oligonucleotide Proximity Encoding), a method for reconstructing spatial organization from diffusion-defined DNA barcode interactions without the use of optical imaging. In SCOPE, hydrogel beads bearing unique DNA barcodes contain both "sender" and "receiver" oligonucleotides. Upon enzymatic release, sender oligos diffuse locally and hybridize to receiver oligos on neighboring beads, forming chimeric molecules that encode spatial proximity. Sequencing these products yields an interaction matrix, which is then used to reconstruct a spatial coordinate map.
The authors demonstrate reconstruction of synthetic two-dimensional shapes, a large multicolor Snellen eye chart, and the interior surface of three-dimensional …
Author response:
Public Reviews:
Reviewer #1 (Public review):
Summary:
Liao et al. present SCOPE (Spatial reConstruction via Oligonucleotide Proximity Encoding), a method for reconstructing spatial organization from diffusion-defined DNA barcode interactions without the use of optical imaging. In SCOPE, hydrogel beads bearing unique DNA barcodes contain both "sender" and "receiver" oligonucleotides. Upon enzymatic release, sender oligos diffuse locally and hybridize to receiver oligos on neighboring beads, forming chimeric molecules that encode spatial proximity. Sequencing these products yields an interaction matrix, which is then used to reconstruct a spatial coordinate map.
The authors demonstrate reconstruction of synthetic two-dimensional shapes, a large multicolor Snellen eye chart, and the interior surface of three-dimensional molds. The work expands the conceptual and experimental landscape of optics-free spatial sequencing.
Thank you for this accurate summary of the work.
Strengths:
SCOPE employs bidirectional sender and receiver oligonucleotides on every bead, rather than using asymmetric transmitter-receiver architectures found in other diffusion-based methods. The symmetric design may improve detection sensitivity and reconstruction strategies, and represents a meaningful variation on optics-free spatial encoding.
A notable strength of this study is the physical scale achieved. The authors reconstruct a Snellen chart spanning approximately 704 mm² and demonstrate molded 3D structures on the order of 75-100 mm³. Although some larger-scale warping is evident, and is discussed as potentially due to non-uniform diffusion, the relative local positioning across these large areas appears impressively accurate.
The authors extend reconstruction beyond two-dimensional arrays to three-dimensional molded surfaces. This demonstrates that the assay and the computational methods for interpreting proximity graphs can support non-planar spatial relationships, expanding the scope of optics-free spatial inference.
Thank you for highlighting these strengths of SCOPE.
Weaknesses:
Although the method is discussed in the context of spatial genomics and potential tissue applications, it is currently demonstrated only on engineered two-dimensional bead arrays and three-dimensional shapes fabricated in molds. It remains unclear how SCOPE would perform in heterogeneous biological environments, where diffusion may exhibit additional non-uniformities. A biological proof-of-concept, even limited in scope, would help define the method's strengths and limitations more clearly.
We concur with the reviewer that a biological proof-of-concept is a key next step, and that diffusion will be more heterogeneous in this more complex environment. To this end, we are actively working to further develop SCOPE for use in tissue sections, with the goal of capturing transcriptomes, accessible chromatin, and genomes. As part of this work, we also hope to systematically explore a range of tissue permeabilization and tissue clearing approaches to mitigate the impact of heterogeneity on performance.
The reconstruction of three-dimensional structures lacks strong sampling from volume interiors. This is speculated to be due to several possible factors; however, this limitation constrains the method to reconstruction of volume surfaces rather than comprehensive three-dimensional profiling.
Thank you for highlighting this important limitation. The 3D reconstructions are indeed constrained by under sampling of volume interiors. We anticipate that this might be addressed via relatively minor adjustments to the protocol, e.g. using light or base-labile linkers to trigger oligo release, with the expectation that this will improve reaction consistency throughout the volume. However, even if we are unable to resolve this issue, we note that surface-resolved reconstructions may be useful for some goals, e.g. embedding a bead-packed gel within a tissue lumen, such as the gut. This could enable surface beads to capture RNA transcripts from adjacent cells, while bead–bead associations serve to define the surface topology.
The reconstruction workflow involves multiple preprocessing steps and embedding choices. While these appear to work well for synthetic shapes with known geometry, it is less clear how parameter choices would be made in contexts where ground truth is unknown. Clarifying how reconstruction robustness is assessed without prior knowledge of spatial structure would help readers understand how the method could be practically deployed, particularly in more heterogeneous tissue contexts.
Thank you for the opportunity to clarify. The computational pipeline used for 2D SCOPE reconstruction is designed to operate on a standardized input format and can be applied to arbitrary datasets without prior knowledge of spatial structure. For example, as shown in Figure 3, both the circle and “swoosh” geometries were reconstructed using the same algorithm and identical initial parameters. While certain hyper parameters are pre-specified (e.g. the number of k-nearest neighbors used to compute the pairwise distance matrix for UMAP), these are fixed across datasets. Other parameters, such as UMAP’s “min_dist,” are selected via an automated heuristic grid search that proceeds without user intervention. The agreement with ground truth in these controlled settings, together with the reproducibility of stochastic reconstructions (see Figure 3E-F), supports the robustness of the approach.
Importantly, there was one exception. Reconstruction of the Snellen eye chart dataset required a manual step, involving an initial 3D UMAP embedding followed by a 2D projection to “flatten” the result. We suspect this reflects radial non-uniformities in sender/receiver oligo diffusion at larger spatial scales. Addressing such confounders algorithmically by explicitly modeling diffusion heterogeneity represents an important area for future work, with the goal of entirely eliminating the need for manual intervention.
Finally, we note that these benchmark shapes represent somewhat contrived examples, and the geometries encountered in practice may often be much less complex. For example, in conventional spatial genomics, the geometry consists of a bead monolayer forming a flat, regular surface on a rectangular slide of known dimensions. Regardless of the tissue architecture overlaid on this surface, the reconstruction problem is defined by the bead monolayer itself, inferred through sender-receiver interactions.
References
Qian N, Li J, Yasser R, Yu M, Weinstein JA. 2026. Volumetric DNA microscopy for mapping spatial transcriptomes in three dimensions. Nat Protoc. doi:10.1038/s41596-025-01329-3
Qian N, Weinstein JA. 2025. Spatial transcriptomic imaging of an intact organism using volumetric DNA microscopy. Nat Biotechnol 1–11.
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