Transition of Staphylococcus aureus tetracycline resistance plasmid pT181 from independent multicopy replicon to predominantly integrated chromosomal element over 65 years
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eLife Assessment
Using genome databases, the authors performed solid bioinformatic analyses to trace the genomic history of the clinically relevant Staphylococcus aureus tetracycline resistance plasmid pT181 over the last seven decades. They discovered that this element has transitioned from a multicopy plasmid to a chromosomally integrated element, and the work represents a valuable demonstration of the use of publicly available data to investigate plasmid biology and inform clinical epidemiology. This work will appeal to researchers interested in staphylococcal evolution and plasmid biology.
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Abstract
Mobile genetic elements (MGEs), including plasmids, phages and genome islands, are major sources of bacterial genetic diversity. The small plasmid pT181 confers tetracycline resistance in bacterial pathogen Staphylococcus aureus via an efflux pump, TetK. pT181 was one of the earliest sequenced S. aureus plasmids, and has been isolated in both clinical and livestock-associated strains for decades, both as an independent replicon and integrated in the chromosome as part of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec). Bacterial genome analysis tools and high-quality sequences with metadata are publicly available, but these resources remain underleveraged for examining historical data, especially when studying the spread of MGEs across a species and over time. Using publicly available reads and metadata, we explored the evolution of pT181 over almost seven decades of samples to identify temporal trends in sequence evolution, copy number changes, and spread across S. aureus and beyond. pT181 was prevalent across S. aureus (found in 9.5% of 83,366 genomes tested), with a conserved sequence outside of three hypervariable regions. The history of pT181 since 1954 is characterized by spread across strains, significant variation in plasmid copy number of the independent replicon, and increasing frequency of integration of the plasmid into the S. aureus chromosome. We have identified multiple chromosomal integration locations of the plasmid, including outside of the previously characterized SCCmec. We find that pT181 has been transferred across staphylococcaceae and into a Gram-negative species. The repeated integration of pT181 into the chromosome may indicate co-evolution of the plasmid and the host, potentially to facilitate increased antibiotic resistance.
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eLife Assessment
Using genome databases, the authors performed solid bioinformatic analyses to trace the genomic history of the clinically relevant Staphylococcus aureus tetracycline resistance plasmid pT181 over the last seven decades. They discovered that this element has transitioned from a multicopy plasmid to a chromosomally integrated element, and the work represents a valuable demonstration of the use of publicly available data to investigate plasmid biology and inform clinical epidemiology. This work will appeal to researchers interested in staphylococcal evolution and plasmid biology.
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Reviewer #1 (Public review):
The study provides a robust bioinformatic characterization of the evolution of pT181. My main criticism of the work is the lack of experimental validation for the hypotheses proposed by the authors.
Comments on the study:
(1) One potential reason for the decline in pT181 copy number over time may be a high cost associated with the multicopy state. In this sense, it would be interesting if the authors could use (or construct) isogenic strains differing only in the state of the plasmid (multicopy/integrated). With this system, the authors could measure the fitness of the strains in the presence and absence of tetracycline, and they could be able to understand the benefit associated with the plasmid transition. The authors discuss these ideas, but it would be nice to test them.
(2) It would be interesting to …
Reviewer #1 (Public review):
The study provides a robust bioinformatic characterization of the evolution of pT181. My main criticism of the work is the lack of experimental validation for the hypotheses proposed by the authors.
Comments on the study:
(1) One potential reason for the decline in pT181 copy number over time may be a high cost associated with the multicopy state. In this sense, it would be interesting if the authors could use (or construct) isogenic strains differing only in the state of the plasmid (multicopy/integrated). With this system, the authors could measure the fitness of the strains in the presence and absence of tetracycline, and they could be able to understand the benefit associated with the plasmid transition. The authors discuss these ideas, but it would be nice to test them.
(2) It would be interesting to know the transfer frequencies of the multicopy mobilizable pT181 plasmid, compared to the transfer frequency of the plasmid integrated into the SSCmec element (which can be co-transferred, integrated in conjugative plasmids, or by transduction).
(3) One important limitation of the study that should be mentioned is that inferring pT181 PCN from whole genome data can be problematic. For example, some DNA extraction methods may underestimate the copy number of small plasmids because the small, circular plasmids are preferentially depleted during the process (see, for example, https://www.nature.com/articles/srep28063).
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Reviewer #2 (Public review):
Summary:
The authors performed bioinformatic analyses to trace the genomic history of the clinically relevant pT181 plasmid. Specifically, they:
(1) tracked the presence of pT181 across different S. aureus strain backgrounds through time. It was first found in one, later multiple strains, though this may reflect changes in sampling over time.
(2) estimated the mutation rate of the chromosome and plasmid.
(3) estimated the plasmid copy number of pT181, and found that it decreased over time. The latter was supported by two sets of statistical analyses, first showing that the number of single-copy isolates increased over time, and second, that the multicopy isolates demonstrated a lower PCN over time.
(4) reported the different integration sites at which pT181 integrated into the genome.
As a caveat, they …
Reviewer #2 (Public review):
Summary:
The authors performed bioinformatic analyses to trace the genomic history of the clinically relevant pT181 plasmid. Specifically, they:
(1) tracked the presence of pT181 across different S. aureus strain backgrounds through time. It was first found in one, later multiple strains, though this may reflect changes in sampling over time.
(2) estimated the mutation rate of the chromosome and plasmid.
(3) estimated the plasmid copy number of pT181, and found that it decreased over time. The latter was supported by two sets of statistical analyses, first showing that the number of single-copy isolates increased over time, and second, that the multicopy isolates demonstrated a lower PCN over time.
(4) reported the different integration sites at which pT181 integrated into the genome.
As a caveat, they mentioned that identical plasmid sequences have variable plasmid copy numbers across different genomes in their dataset.
Strengths:
This is a very solid, well-considered bioinformatic study on publicly available data. I greatly appreciate the thoughtful approach the authors have taken to their subject matter, neither over- nor underselling their results. It is a strength that the authors focussed on a single plasmid in a single bacterial species, as it allowed them to take into account unique knowledge about the biology of this system and really dive deep into the evolution of this specific plasmid. It makes for a compelling case study. At the same time, I think the introduction and discussion can be strengthened to demonstrate what lessons might be drawn from this case study for other plasmids.
Weaknesses:
The finding that the pT181 copy number declined over time is the most interesting claim of the paper to me, and not something that I have seen done before. While the authors have looked at some confounders in this analysis, I think this could be strengthened further in a revision.
For the flow of the storyline, I also think the estimation of mutation rates (starting L181) and integration into the chromosome (starting L255) could be moved to the supplement or a later position in the main text.
Clearly, the use of publicly available data prevents the authors from controlling the growth and sequencing conditions of the isolates. It is striking that they observe a clear signal in spite of this, but I would have loved to see more discussion of the metadata that came with the publicly available sequences and even more use of that metadata to control for confounding.
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Author response:
eLife Assessment
Using genome databases, the authors performed solid bioinformatic analyses to trace the genomic history of the clinically relevant Staphylococcus aureus tetracycline resistance plasmid pT181 over the last seven decades. They discovered that this element has transitioned from a multicopy plasmid to a chromosomally integrated element, and the work represents a valuable demonstration of the use of publicly available data to investigate plasmid biology and inform clinical epidemiology. This work will appeal to researchers interested in staphylococcal evolution and plasmid biology.
Thank you, we agree with this overview. We also think this work is interesting to people interested in antimicrobial resistance and bacterial genome structure.
Public Reviews:
Reviewer #1 (Public review):
The study provides a …
Author response:
eLife Assessment
Using genome databases, the authors performed solid bioinformatic analyses to trace the genomic history of the clinically relevant Staphylococcus aureus tetracycline resistance plasmid pT181 over the last seven decades. They discovered that this element has transitioned from a multicopy plasmid to a chromosomally integrated element, and the work represents a valuable demonstration of the use of publicly available data to investigate plasmid biology and inform clinical epidemiology. This work will appeal to researchers interested in staphylococcal evolution and plasmid biology.
Thank you, we agree with this overview. We also think this work is interesting to people interested in antimicrobial resistance and bacterial genome structure.
Public Reviews:
Reviewer #1 (Public review):
The study provides a robust bioinformatic characterization of the evolution of pT181. My main criticism of the work is the lack of experimental validation for the hypotheses proposed by the authors.
Comments on the study:
(1) One potential reason for the decline in pT181 copy number over time may be a high cost associated with the multicopy state. In this sense, it would be interesting if the authors could use (or construct) isogenic strains differing only in the state of the plasmid (multicopy/integrated). With this system, the authors could measure the fitness of the strains in the presence and absence of tetracycline, and they could be able to understand the benefit associated with the plasmid transition. The authors discuss these ideas, but it would be nice to test them.
We agree that the relative fitness of integrated versus multicopy plasmids is interesting and a costly multicopy state could explain the transition of independent pT181 replicons to chromosomal integration. This is a project we are exploring for a future study. However, we think that this additional experimental work goes beyond the scope of the paper.
(2) It would be interesting to know the transfer frequencies of the multicopy mobilizable pT181 plasmid, compared to the transfer frequency of the plasmid integrated into the SSCmec element (which can be co-transferred, integrated in conjugative plasmids, or by transduction).
We agree with the reviewer that this is an interesting question. However, we think inferring these rates from natural sequence data is not feasible in this case given the low heterogeneity of the plasmid sequence. A laboratory-based experimental study could not address the real transfers we observe over the course of decades, as in vitro S. aureus transfer rates are often not good proxies for in vivo (McCarthy et al., 2014). In addition, we do not know what is moving the integrated plasmid. pT181 could be moved by a phage or plasmid, so we are uncertain what the correct experiment would be to explore this.
(3) One important limitation of the study that should be mentioned is that inferring pT181 PCN from whole genome data can be problematic. For example, some DNA extraction methods may underestimate the copy number of small plasmids because the small, circular plasmids are preferentially depleted during the process (see, for example, https://www.nature.com/articles/srep28063).
We will investigate this issue further in the revisions. The kits used to extract DNA for the earlier-collected samples may possibly yield more plasmid DNA relative to the chromosome compared to newer ones on average; however, we think this is not driving the decline that we observe in multicopy pT181 copy number. Multiple BioProjects find the same result, where earlier samples have higher copy number compared to later samples. We expect extraction methods to be consistent within a BioProject, suggesting that this decline is genuine and not technical. In revisions, we intend to evaluate the effect of date of sequencing and additional metadata on copy number.
Reviewer #2 (Public review):
Summary:
The authors performed bioinformatic analyses to trace the genomic history of the clinically relevant pT181 plasmid. Specifically, they:
(1) Tracked the presence of pT181 across different S. aureus strain backgrounds through time. It was first found in one, later multiple strains, though this may reflect changes in sampling over time.
(2) Estimated the mutation rate of the chromosome and plasmid.
(3) Estimated the plasmid copy number of pT181, and found that it decreased over time. The latter was supported by two sets of statistical analyses, first showing that the number of single-copy isolates increased over time, and second, that the multicopy isolates demonstrated a lower PCN over time.
(4) Reported the different integration sites at which pT181 integrated into the genome.
As a caveat, they mentioned that identical plasmid sequences have variable plasmid copy numbers across different genomes in their dataset.
Strengths:
This is a very solid, well-considered bioinformatic study on publicly available data. I greatly appreciate the thoughtful approach the authors have taken to their subject matter, neither over- nor underselling their results. It is a strength that the authors focused on a single plasmid in a single bacterial species, as it allowed them to take into account unique knowledge about the biology of this system and really dive deep into the evolution of this specific plasmid. It makes for a compelling case study. At the same time, I think the introduction and discussion can be strengthened to demonstrate what lessons might be drawn from this case study for other plasmids.
Weaknesses:
The finding that the pT181 copy number declined over time is the most interesting claim of the paper to me, and not something that I have seen done before. While the authors have looked at some confounders in this analysis, I think this could be strengthened further in a revision.
In the revisions, we will further explore the impact that technical variation could have in contributing to copy number variation and update our claims for the decline in copy number of the independent replicon over time and variation for the same plasmid sequence accordingly. Multiple BioProjects show earlier samples have higher copy number compared to later samples; we expect extraction methods to be consistent within a BioProject, supporting our initial findings that this decline over time is not due to technical variation.
For the flow of the storyline, I also think the estimation of mutation rates (starting L181) and integration into the chromosome (starting L255) could be moved to the supplement or a later position in the main text.
We will revisit the text organization for flow and clarity of storyline.
Clearly, the use of publicly available data prevents the authors from controlling the growth and sequencing conditions of the isolates. It is striking that they observe a clear signal in spite of this, but I would have loved to see more discussion of the metadata that came with the publicly available sequences and even more use of that metadata to control for confounding.
In revisions, we will further investigate possible contributors to the observed decline in copy number of multicopy pT181 over time. We have incorporated the date of sample collection and BioProject in our analysis, but not the date of sequencing or extraction technique.
References
McCarthy, A. J., Loeffler, A., Witney, A. A., Gould, K. A., Lloyd, D. H., & Lindsay, J. A. (2014). Extensive horizontal gene transfer during Staphylococcus aureus co-colonization in vivo. Genome Biology and Evolution, 6(10), 2697–2708. https://doi.org/10.1093/gbe/evu214
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