Abundant Parent-of-origin Effect eQTL: The Framingham Heart Study
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eLife Assessment
This important study provides a systematic investigation of parent-of-origin (POE) effects on gene expression using large trio-based data from the Framingham Heart Study, uncovering thousands of potentially novel associations. While the findings are potentially significant, the statistical support for classifying POE eQTLs and some downstream analyses is incomplete, and more stringent re-analysis is needed. With such revisions, the work would serve as a foundation for advancing understanding of POEs and their role in gene regulation.
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Abstract
Parent-of-origin effect (POE) is a phenomenon whereby an allele’s effect on a phenotype depends both on its allelic identity and parent from whom the allele is inherited, as exemplified by the polar overdominance in the ovine callypyge locus and the human obesity DLK1 locus. Systematic studies of POE of expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) are lacking. In this study we use trios among participants in the Framingham Heart Study to examine to what extend POE exists for gene expression of whole blood using whole genome sequencing and RNA sequencing. For each gene and the SNPs in cis, we performed eQTL analysis using genotype, paternal, maternal, and joint models, where the genotype model enforces the identical effect sizes on paternal and maternal alleles, and the joint model allows them to have different effect sizes. We compared models using Bayes factors to identify paternal, maternal, and opposing eQTL, where paternal and maternal effects have opposite directions. The resultant variants are collectively called POE eQTL. The highlights of our study include: 1) There are more than 2, 000 genes harbor POE eQTL and majority POE eQTL are not in the vicinity of known imprinted genes; 2) Among 180 genes harboring opposing eQTL, 99 harbor exclusively opposing eQTL, and 58 of the 99 are phosphoprotein coding genes, reflecting significant enrichment; 3) Paternal eQTL are enriched with GWAS hits, and genes harboring paternal eQTL are enriched with drug targets. Our study demonstrates the abundance of POE in gene expression, illustrates the complexity of gene expression regulation, and provides a resource that is complementary to existing resources such as GTEx. We revisited two previous POE findings in light of our POE results. A SNP residing in KCNQ1 that is maternally associated with diabetes is a maternal eQTL of CDKN1C, not KCNQ1. A SNP residing in DLK1 that showed paternal polar overdominance for human obesity is a maternal eQTL of MEG3, offering an explanation for the baseline risk of homozygous samples through association between MEG3 expression and obesity. Finally, we advised caution on conducting Mendelian randomization using gene expression as the exposure.
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eLife Assessment
This important study provides a systematic investigation of parent-of-origin (POE) effects on gene expression using large trio-based data from the Framingham Heart Study, uncovering thousands of potentially novel associations. While the findings are potentially significant, the statistical support for classifying POE eQTLs and some downstream analyses is incomplete, and more stringent re-analysis is needed. With such revisions, the work would serve as a foundation for advancing understanding of POEs and their role in gene regulation.
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Reviewer #1 (Public review):
Summary:
This study presents a systematic investigation of parent-of-origin effects on gene expression using trio-based data from the Framingham Heart Study, which is notable for its relatively large number of trios. By combining whole-genome and RNA sequencing data, the authors examined the extent to which gene expression is influenced by whether genetic variants are inherited maternally or paternally.
The authors report that parent-of-origin eQTLs are widespread, identifying 15,893 eQTLs from 14,733 variants and 1,824 genes that were significant in paternal, maternal, or joint tests but not detected by traditional eQTL approaches. They further classified these associations based on the relative strength and direction of paternal and maternal effects, highlighting a subset with opposing directions. The …
Reviewer #1 (Public review):
Summary:
This study presents a systematic investigation of parent-of-origin effects on gene expression using trio-based data from the Framingham Heart Study, which is notable for its relatively large number of trios. By combining whole-genome and RNA sequencing data, the authors examined the extent to which gene expression is influenced by whether genetic variants are inherited maternally or paternally.
The authors report that parent-of-origin eQTLs are widespread, identifying 15,893 eQTLs from 14,733 variants and 1,824 genes that were significant in paternal, maternal, or joint tests but not detected by traditional eQTL approaches. They further classified these associations based on the relative strength and direction of paternal and maternal effects, highlighting a subset with opposing directions. The study also highlighted eGenes linked to known imprinted genes as well as those with opposing parent-specific effects, and observed that paternal eGenes are enriched for drug targets. Finally, the work revisits previous findings in which eQTL studies were used to interpret disease-associated loci, emphasizing that conventional eQTL analyses without testing the parent-of-origin may mislead gene prioritization efforts. The study recommends that future downstream analyses, such as Mendelian randomization, take into account the provided lists of SNPs and eGenes and exclude those with strong parent-of-origin effects when linking genetic regulation to disease risk.
Strengths:
The major strength of the study lies in the scale and quality of the dataset, the trio-based design, and the systematic application of statistical tests for parent-of-origin effects. The strengths thoughtfully employed Bayes factors rather than p-values to provide stronger evidence of association, which adds rigor to their analyses. These design choices provide compelling evidence that parent-of-origin effects are widespread and that conventional eQTL analyses miss a substantial fraction of regulatory variation. The results are clearly presented and supported by robust analyses, including the identification of opposing parental effects and the enrichment of paternal eGenes for drug targets. Notably, the two examples demonstrating how these findings can reshape disease gene prioritization highlight the broader impact of the study and encourage further work in the community to incorporate parent-of-origin effects.
Weaknesses:
The main limitations of the study are threefold. First, there is a lack of replication in independent cohorts, which is understandable given the difficulty of identifying datasets with a comparable number of trios, but replication would help establish the generalizability of the findings. Second, while Bayes factors are thoughtfully used to assess evidence of association, the paper does not fully explore how the chosen thresholds translate to the expected rate of false positives. For example, a minor allele frequency cutoff of 1% was applied, which seems somewhat arbitrary, and without reporting the allele frequency distribution of the identified eQTLs, it is unclear whether rare variants disproportionately contribute to the signals, potentially affecting the reliability of discoveries. Third, the ancestry background of the study samples is not reported, which could be a confounding factor in the genetic analyses.
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Reviewer #2 (Public review):
Summary:
The authors have used 1477 sequenced trios with available gene expression data in the offspring to discover eQTLs that act in a parent-of-origin specific manner. The classified associated SNPs are tested for enrichment for GWAS hits, drug target genes, etc.
Strengths:
The manuscript presents an impressive analysis of a very rich data set of parent-of-origin eQTLs. To my knowledge, it is one of the largest studies of its kind, most analyses are sound, and the results are of interest to many in the field and potentially beyond. The different ideas of follow-up analyses are useful and make sense.
Weaknesses:
While in general the analyses are well-conducted, I noticed a major issue with the POE eQTL classification, which puts into question most of the downstream analysis. In light of this problem, most …
Reviewer #2 (Public review):
Summary:
The authors have used 1477 sequenced trios with available gene expression data in the offspring to discover eQTLs that act in a parent-of-origin specific manner. The classified associated SNPs are tested for enrichment for GWAS hits, drug target genes, etc.
Strengths:
The manuscript presents an impressive analysis of a very rich data set of parent-of-origin eQTLs. To my knowledge, it is one of the largest studies of its kind, most analyses are sound, and the results are of interest to many in the field and potentially beyond. The different ideas of follow-up analyses are useful and make sense.
Weaknesses:
While in general the analyses are well-conducted, I noticed a major issue with the POE eQTL classification, which puts into question most of the downstream analysis. In light of this problem, most of the analysis would need to be rerun, which represents a major revision of the paper, but is straightforward to repair.
The major problem with the classification of POEs is that simply having significant maternal, but insignificant paternal effect is not an indicator of POE, this happens widely for SNPs with no POE whatsoever (it can happen by chance even when both maternal and paternal effects are the same and non-zero - the authors can see it via simulations under the null [maternal=paternal effect]). In order to be able to talk about POE, first, a significant difference between maternal and paternal effects needs to be claimed. Therefore, none of the 4 sets of POE eQTLs are justified. To me, the only relevant criterion to pick POE SNPs is the P-value when comparing the maternal and paternal effects. The definitions of the 4 groups are based on somewhat ad hoc priors, BF thresholds, etc. Also, in Section 4.6, the value of theta is arbitrarily chosen (along with the threshold of 4 to declare POE). In my opinion, the clean treatment of the 4 groups would start with a significant P-value (beta_maternal vs beta_paternal). Within this set, you can then use the original criteria presented in the paper, but only among these associations where there is solid evidence of different parental effects.
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Author response:
We thank the two anonymous reviewers who took the time and effort to read and evaluate our work. We look forward to submitting a revised version of the manuscript that addresses their comments.
A major concern shared between both reviewers is our use of Bayes factors instead pvalues to measure the strength of association. In revision, we will add a section in Supplementary to compare and constrast Bayes factor and p-values. Very briefly here, p-value is the tail probability under the null. Formally, it is defined as P(T > t|H0), for a test statistic T with obvserved value t computed from data D. But our interest is P(H0|D) and P(H1|D), posterior probabilities of the null and alternative models, about which p-value says nothing. With FDR approach, a q-value, the minium FDR at which a null is rejected, which can be …
Author response:
We thank the two anonymous reviewers who took the time and effort to read and evaluate our work. We look forward to submitting a revised version of the manuscript that addresses their comments.
A major concern shared between both reviewers is our use of Bayes factors instead pvalues to measure the strength of association. In revision, we will add a section in Supplementary to compare and constrast Bayes factor and p-values. Very briefly here, p-value is the tail probability under the null. Formally, it is defined as P(T > t|H0), for a test statistic T with obvserved value t computed from data D. But our interest is P(H0|D) and P(H1|D), posterior probabilities of the null and alternative models, about which p-value says nothing. With FDR approach, a q-value, the minium FDR at which a null is rejected, which can be estimated from a collection of p-values, has a Bayesian interpretation as the probability that H0 is true conditioning on rejecting that H0. This is not quite P(H0|D) but nevertheless a useful probabilistic statement. For FDR approach to work, however, the collection of tests need to be reasonably independent, and their effect sizes need to be mixed. Both implicit assumptions can fail for cis eQTL analysis.
On the other hand, with Bayes factors we can compute posterior probability P(H0|D) and P(H1|D) after specifying prior odds P(H1)/P(H0) (or equivalently P(H1) since P(H0)+ P(H1) = 1). In our manuscript, the prior odds used to determined Bayes factor threshold is 1/1000, or about 1 cis eQTL per gene. Bayes factor also allows us to directly compare two non-nested alternative models P(paternal effect|D) and P(maternal effect|D), which is difficult to do using p-values.
It was suggested (by reviewer 2) that POE eQTL should be defined by testing H0 : θ0 = θ1 against H1 : θ0 ̸= θ1 where θ0 and θ1 are maternal and paternal effects respectively. This indeed was our initial approach, as evidenced in Table 1 (last column) and Section 4.5 in Methods. Our final approach is more stringent: H0 : β0 = β1 = 0 against H1 : β0 = 0,β1/= 0, to use test for paternal effect as an example (the test for maternal effect can be obtained in a similar fashion). That is, we not only require that paternal and maternal effects be the same, as suggested by reviewer, but also require that they are both 0 under the null. This is partially motivated by an example in Table 1 (Gene ZNF890P) where both β0 > 0 and β1 > 0, and β0/= β1. In other words, examples like this where both paternal and maternal effects are significant and their differences are also significant were not included in our downstream classification and further analysis.
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