Age and Learning Shapes Sound Representations in Auditory Cortex During Adolescence
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eLife Assessment
This important study suggests that adolescent mice exhibit less accuracy than adult mice in a sound discrimination task when the sound frequencies are very similar. While the evidence supporting this observation is solid, demonstrating that this effect arises from cognitive differences between adolescent and adult mice requires more thorough documentation of task performance, as well as control of impulsivity and baseline licking. The authors should also clarify how difficult and easy trials are interleaved in the task and provide a more comprehensive discussion of the cortical inactivation results in relation to the overall task difficulty.
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Abstract
Adolescence is a developmental period characterized by heightened plasticity, yet how ongoing development affects sensory processing and cognitive function is unclear. We investigated how adolescent (postnatal day 40 ± 2) and adult (postnatal day 80 ± 2) mice differ in performance on a pure tone Go/NoGo auditory discrimination task of varying difficulty. Using dense electrophysiological recordings, we measured spiking activity at single neuron resolution in the auditory cortex while mice were engaged in the task. Adolescent mice showed lower auditory discrimination performance compared to adults, particularly in more challenging versions of the discrimination. This performance difference was due to higher response variability and weaker cognitive control expressed as lower response bias. Adolescent and adult neuronal responses differed only slightly in representations of pure tones when measured outside the context of learning and the task. However, cortical representations after learning within the context of the task were markedly different. We found differences in stimulus- and choice-related activity at the single neuron level representations, as well as lower population-level decoding in adolescents. Overall, cortical decoding in adolescents was lower and slower, especially for difficult sound discrimination, reflecting immature cortical representations of sounds and choices. Notably, we found age-related differences, which were higher after learning, reflecting the combined impact of age and learning. Our findings highlight distinct neurophysiological and behavioral profiles in adolescence, underscoring the ongoing development of cognitive control mechanisms and cortical plasticity during this sensitive developmental period.
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eLife Assessment
This important study suggests that adolescent mice exhibit less accuracy than adult mice in a sound discrimination task when the sound frequencies are very similar. While the evidence supporting this observation is solid, demonstrating that this effect arises from cognitive differences between adolescent and adult mice requires more thorough documentation of task performance, as well as control of impulsivity and baseline licking. The authors should also clarify how difficult and easy trials are interleaved in the task and provide a more comprehensive discussion of the cortical inactivation results in relation to the overall task difficulty.
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Reviewer #1 (Public review):
Summary:
Praegel et al. explore the differences in learning an auditory discrimination task between adolescent and adult mice. Using freely moving (Educage) and head-fixed paradigms, they compare behavioral performance and neuronal responses over the course of learning. The mice were initially trained for seven days on an easy pure frequency tone Go/No-go task (frequency difference of one octave), followed by seven days of a harder version (frequency difference of 0.25 octave). While adolescents and adults showed similar performances on the easy task, adults performed significantly better on the harder task. Quantifying the lick bias of both groups, the authors then argue that the difference in performance is not due to a difference in perception, but rather to a difference in cognitive control. The authors …
Reviewer #1 (Public review):
Summary:
Praegel et al. explore the differences in learning an auditory discrimination task between adolescent and adult mice. Using freely moving (Educage) and head-fixed paradigms, they compare behavioral performance and neuronal responses over the course of learning. The mice were initially trained for seven days on an easy pure frequency tone Go/No-go task (frequency difference of one octave), followed by seven days of a harder version (frequency difference of 0.25 octave). While adolescents and adults showed similar performances on the easy task, adults performed significantly better on the harder task. Quantifying the lick bias of both groups, the authors then argue that the difference in performance is not due to a difference in perception, but rather to a difference in cognitive control. The authors then used neuropixel recordings across 4 auditory cortical regions to quantify the neuronal activity related to the behavior. At the single-cell level, the data shows earlier stimulus-related discrimination for adults compared to adolescents in both the easy and hard tasks. At the neuronal population level, adults displayed a higher decoding accuracy and lower onset latency in the hard task as compared to adolescents. Such differences were not only due to learning, but also to age as concluded from recordings in novice mice. After learning, neuronal tuning properties had changed in adults but not in adolescents. Overall, the differences between adolescent and adult neuronal data correlate with the behavior results in showing that learning a difficult task is more challenging for younger mice.
Strengths:
(1) The behavioral task is well designed, with the comparison of easy and difficult tasks allowing for a refined conclusion regarding learning across ages. The experiments with optogenetics and novice mice complete the research question in a convincing way.
(2) The analysis, including the systematic comparison of task performance across the two age groups, is most interesting and reveals differences in learning (or learning strategies?) that are compelling.
(3) Neuronal recording during both behavioral training and passive sound exposure is particularly powerful and allows interesting conclusions.
Weaknesses:
(1) The presentation of the paper must be strengthened. Inconsistencies, mislabeling, duplicated text, typos, and inappropriate color code should be changed.
(2) Some claims are not supported by the data. For example, the sentence that says that "adolescent mice showed lower discrimination performance than adults (l.22) should be rewritten, as the data does not show that for the easy task (Figure 1F and Figure 1H).
(3) The recording electrodes cover regions in the primary and secondary cortices. It is well known that these two regions process sounds quite differently (for example, one has tonotopy, the other does not), and separating recordings from both regions is important to conclude anything about sound representations. The authors show that the conclusions are the same across regions for Figure 4, but is it also the case for the subsequent analysis? In Figure 7 for example, are the quantified properties not distinct across primary and secondary areas? If this is not the case, how is it compatible with the published literature?
(4) Some analysis interpretations should be more cautious. For example, I do not understand how the lick bias, defined -according to the method- as the inverse normal distribution of the z-score (hit rate) +z-scored (false alarm rate; Figure 1j?, l.749-750), should reflect a cognitive difficulty (l. 161-162, l.171). A lower lick rate in general could reflect a weaker ability to withhold licking- as indicated on l.164, but also so many other things, like a lower frustration threshold, lower satiation, more energy, etc).
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Reviewer #2 (Public review):
Summary:
The authors aimed to find out how - and how well - adult and adolescent mice discriminate tones of different frequencies and whether there are differences in processing at the level of the auditory cortex that might explain differences in behavior between the two groups. Adolescent mice were found to be worse at sound frequency discrimination than adult mice. The performance difference between the groups was most pronounced when the sounds were close in frequency and thus difficult to distinguish, and could, at least in part, be attributed to the younger mice's inability to withhold licking in no-go trials. By recording the activity of individual neurons in the auditory cortex when mice performed the task or were passively listening as well as in untrained mice the authors identified differences in …
Reviewer #2 (Public review):
Summary:
The authors aimed to find out how - and how well - adult and adolescent mice discriminate tones of different frequencies and whether there are differences in processing at the level of the auditory cortex that might explain differences in behavior between the two groups. Adolescent mice were found to be worse at sound frequency discrimination than adult mice. The performance difference between the groups was most pronounced when the sounds were close in frequency and thus difficult to distinguish, and could, at least in part, be attributed to the younger mice's inability to withhold licking in no-go trials. By recording the activity of individual neurons in the auditory cortex when mice performed the task or were passively listening as well as in untrained mice the authors identified differences in the way that the adult and adolescent brains encode sounds and the animals' choice that could potentially contribute to the differences in behavior.
Strengths:
The study combines behavioural testing in freely-moving and head-fixed mice, optogenetic manipulation, and high-density electrophysiological recordings in behaving mice to address important open questions about age differences in sound-guided behavior and sound representation in the auditory cortex.
Weaknesses:
For some of the analyses that the authors conducted it is unclear what the rationale behind them is and, consequently, what conclusion we can draw from them. The results of the optogenetic manipulation, while very interesting, warrant a more in-depth discussion.
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Reviewer #3 (Public review):
Summary:
In this study, Benedikt et al. sought to understand how adolescents and adult mice differ in auditory cortical processing, performance on a go/nogo sound-guided task, and learning. They report that behavioral performance is superior in adults. They also report that neuronal representations of both the acoustic stimulus and behavioral choice are weaker and sluggish in adolescents compared to adults and that these differences were larger in expert mice than in novices. The neural basis of adolescent auditory cognition is an important topic (both clinically and from a basic science perspective) and vastly understudied. However, many aspects of the study fell short, thereby undermining the primary conclusions drawn by the authors. My major concerns are as follows:
(1) The authors report that "adolescent …
Reviewer #3 (Public review):
Summary:
In this study, Benedikt et al. sought to understand how adolescents and adult mice differ in auditory cortical processing, performance on a go/nogo sound-guided task, and learning. They report that behavioral performance is superior in adults. They also report that neuronal representations of both the acoustic stimulus and behavioral choice are weaker and sluggish in adolescents compared to adults and that these differences were larger in expert mice than in novices. The neural basis of adolescent auditory cognition is an important topic (both clinically and from a basic science perspective) and vastly understudied. However, many aspects of the study fell short, thereby undermining the primary conclusions drawn by the authors. My major concerns are as follows:
(1) The authors report that "adolescent mice showed lower auditory discrimination performance compared to adults" and that this performance deficit was due to (among other things) "weaker cognitive control". I'm not fully convinced of this interpretation, for a few reasons. First, the adolescents may simply have been thirstier, and therefore more willing to lick indiscriminately. The high false alarm rates in that case would not reflect a "weaker cognitive control" but rather, an elevated homeostatic drive to obtain water. Second, even the adult animals had relatively high (~40%) false alarm rates on the freely moving version of the task, suggesting that their behavior was not particularly well controlled either. One fact that could help shed light on this would be to know how often the animals licked the spout in between trials. Finally, for the head-fixed version of the task, only d' values are reported. Without the corresponding hit and false alarm rates (and frequency of licking in the intertrial interval), it's hard to know what exactly the animals were doing.
(2) There are some instances where the citations provided do not support the preceding claim. For example, in lines 64-66, the authors highlight the fact that the critical period for pure tone processing in the auditory cortex closes relatively early (by ~P15). However, one of the references cited (ref 14) used FM sweeps, not pure tones, and even provided evidence that the critical period for this more complex stimulus occurred later in development (P31-38). Similarly, on lines 72-74, the authors state that "ACx neurons in adolescents exhibit high neuronal variability and lower tone sensitivity as compared to adults." The reference cited here (ref 4) used AM noise with a broadband carrier, not tones.
(3) Given that the authors report that neuronal firing properties differ across auditory cortical subregions (as many others have previously reported), why did the authors choose to pool neurons indiscriminately across so many different brain regions? And why did they focus on layers 5/6? (Is there some reason to think that age-related differences would be more pronounced in the output layers of the auditory cortex than in other layers?)
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Author response:
Reviewer #1:
A) The presentation of the paper must be strengthened. Inconsistencies, mislabelling, duplicated text, typos, and inappropriate colour code should be changed.
We will revise the manuscript to correct the abovementioned issues.
B) Some claims are not supported by the data. For example, the sentence that says that "adolescent mice showed lower discrimination performance than adults (l.22) should be rewritten, as the data does not show that for the easy task (Figure 1F and Figure 1H).
We will carefully review, verify claims, and correct conclusions where needed.
C) In Figure 7 for example, are the quantified properties not distinct across primary and secondary areas?
We will analyse the data in Figure 7 separately for AUDp and secondary auditory cortices to test regional differences. Additionally, we …
Author response:
Reviewer #1:
A) The presentation of the paper must be strengthened. Inconsistencies, mislabelling, duplicated text, typos, and inappropriate colour code should be changed.
We will revise the manuscript to correct the abovementioned issues.
B) Some claims are not supported by the data. For example, the sentence that says that "adolescent mice showed lower discrimination performance than adults (l.22) should be rewritten, as the data does not show that for the easy task (Figure 1F and Figure 1H).
We will carefully review, verify claims, and correct conclusions where needed.
C) In Figure 7 for example, are the quantified properties not distinct across primary and secondary areas?
We will analyse the data in Figure 7 separately for AUDp and secondary auditory cortices to test regional differences. Additionally, we will provide a table summarizing key neuronal firing properties for each area during passive recordings to clarify how activity varies across cortical subregions and developmental stages.
D) Some analysis interpretations should be more cautious. (..) A lower lick rate in general could reflect a weaker ability to withhold licking- as indicated on l.164, but also so many other things, like a lower frustration threshold, lower satiation, more energy, etc).
We will address issues around lick bias including alternative explanations, such as differences in motivation or impulsivity.
Reviewer #2:
A) For some of the analyses that the authors conducted it is unclear what the rationale behind them is and, consequently, what conclusion we can draw from them.
We will edit the discussion and clarify these points. In addition, we will adjust and extend the methodology section to clarify the rationale of our analysis.
B) The results of the optogenetic manipulation, while very interesting, warrant a more in-depth discussion.
We agree that the effects observed in our optogenetic manipulation warrant further discussion. We will extend on the analysis and discussion of ACx silencing.
Reviewer #3:
A) One fact that could help shed light on this would be to know how often the animals licked the spout in between trials. Finally, for the head-fixed version of the task, only d' values are reported. Without the corresponding hit and false alarm rates (and frequency of licking in the intertrial interval), it's hard to know what exactly the animals were doing.
We recognize the need for a more nuanced analysis for the head-fixed version of the task. We will extend the behavioral analysis and provide more details to clarify these points.
B) There are some instances where the citations provided do not support the preceding claim. For example, in lines 64-66, the authors highlight the fact that the critical period for pure tone processing in the auditory cortex closes relatively early (by ~P15). However, one of the references cited (ref 14) used FM sweeps, not pure tones, and even provided evidence that the critical period for this more complex stimulus occurred later in development (P31-38). Similarly, on lines 72-74, the authors state that "ACx neurons in adolescents exhibit high neuronal variability and lower tone sensitivity as compared to adults." The reference cited here (ref 4) used AM noise with a broadband carrier, not tones.
We appreciate the reviewer pointing out instances where our citations may not fully support our claims. We will carefully review the relevant citations and revise them to ensure they accurately reflect the findings of the cited studies. We will update references in lines 64–66 and 72–74 to better align with the specific stimulus types and developmental timelines discussed.
C) Given that the authors report that neuronal firing properties differ across auditory cortical subregions (as many others have previously reported), why did the authors choose to pool neurons indiscriminately across so many different brain regions?
We agree that pooling neurons from multiple auditory cortical regions could potentially obscure region-specific differences. However, we addressed this concern by analyzing regional differences in neuronal firing properties, as shown in Supplementary Figures S4-1 and S4-2, and Supplementary Tables 2 and 3. Additionally, we examined stimulus-related and choice-related activity across regions and found no significant differences, as presented in Supplementary Figure S4-3. Please see our response to Reviewer 1, where we further elaborate on this point.
D) And why did they focus on layers 5/6? (Is there some reason to think that age-related differences would be more pronounced in the output layers of the auditory cortex than in other layers?)
We acknowledge that other cortical layers are also of interest and may contribute differently to auditory processing across development. Our focus on layers 5/6 was motivated by both methodological considerations and biological relevance. These layers contain many of the principal output neurons of the auditory cortex, and are therefore well positioned to influence downstream decision-making circuits. We will clarify this rationale in the revised manuscript and note the limitations of our approach.
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