Coral anthozoan-specific opsins employ a novel chloride counterion for spectral tuning
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eLife Assessment
This study makes the fundamental discovery of the first natural animal rhodopsin that uses a chloride ion instead of an amino acid side chain as a counterion. Using a combination of biochemical and spectroscopic experiments together with QM/MM simulations, the authors identify the spectral tuning mechanism in the dark state and in the photoproduct state. The methods are sound and the results are convincing. This work will be of interest to biologists working on visual proteins and it also raises new questions about how environmental factors might affect coral opsins.
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Abstract
Animal opsins are G protein coupled receptors that have evolved to sense light by covalently binding a retinal chromophore via a protonated (positively charged) Schiff base. A negatively charged amino acid in the opsin, acting as a counterion, stabilises the proton on the Schiff base, which is essential for sensitivity to visible light. In this study, we investigate the spectroscopic properties of a unique class of opsins from a reef-building coral belonging to the anthozoan-specific opsin II group (ASO-II opsins), which intriguingly lack a counterion residue at any of established sites. Our findings reveal that, unlike other known animal opsins, the protonated state of the Schiff base in visible light-sensitive ASO-II opsins is highly dependent on exogenously supplied chloride ions (Cl − ). By using structural modelling and QM/MM calculations to interpret spectroscopy data, we conclude that, in the dark state, ASO-II opsins employ environmental Cl − as their native counterion, while a nearby polar residue, Glu292 in its protonated neutral form, facilitates Cl − binding. In contrast, Glu292 plays a crucial role in maintaining the protonation state of the Schiff base in the light-activated protein, serving as the counterion in the photoproduct. Furthermore, Glu292 is involved in G protein activation of the ASO-II opsin, suggesting that this novel counterion system coordinates multiple functional properties.
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eLife Assessment
This study makes the fundamental discovery of the first natural animal rhodopsin that uses a chloride ion instead of an amino acid side chain as a counterion. Using a combination of biochemical and spectroscopic experiments together with QM/MM simulations, the authors identify the spectral tuning mechanism in the dark state and in the photoproduct state. The methods are sound and the results are convincing. This work will be of interest to biologists working on visual proteins and it also raises new questions about how environmental factors might affect coral opsins.
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Reviewer #1 (Public review):
The chromophore molecule of animal and microbial rhodopsins is retinal which forms a Schiff base linkage with a lysine in the 7-th transmembrane helix. In most cases, the chromophore is positively charged by protonation of the Schiff base, which is stabilized by a negatively charged counterion. In animal opsins, three sites have been experimentally identified, Glu94 in helix 2, Glu113 in helix 3, and Glu181 in extracellular loop 2, where a glutamate acts as the counterion by deprotonation. In this paper, Sakai et al. investigated molecular properties of anthozoan-specific opsin II (ASO-II opsins), as they lack these glutamates. They found an alternative candidate, Glu292 in helix 7, from the sequences. Interestingly, the experimental data suggested that Glu292 is not the direct counterion in ASO-II opsins. …
Reviewer #1 (Public review):
The chromophore molecule of animal and microbial rhodopsins is retinal which forms a Schiff base linkage with a lysine in the 7-th transmembrane helix. In most cases, the chromophore is positively charged by protonation of the Schiff base, which is stabilized by a negatively charged counterion. In animal opsins, three sites have been experimentally identified, Glu94 in helix 2, Glu113 in helix 3, and Glu181 in extracellular loop 2, where a glutamate acts as the counterion by deprotonation. In this paper, Sakai et al. investigated molecular properties of anthozoan-specific opsin II (ASO-II opsins), as they lack these glutamates. They found an alternative candidate, Glu292 in helix 7, from the sequences. Interestingly, the experimental data suggested that Glu292 is not the direct counterion in ASO-II opsins. Instead, they found that ASO-II opsins employ a chloride ion as the counterion. In the case of microbial rhodopsin, a chloride ion serves as the counterion of light-driven chloride pumps. This paper reports the first observation of a chloride ion as the counterion in animal rhodopsin. Theoretical calculation using a QM/MM method supports their experimental data. The authors also revealed the role of Glu292, which serves as the counterion in the photoproduct, and is involved in G protein activation.
The conclusions of this paper are well supported by data, while the following aspects should be considered for the improvement of the manuscript.
(1) Information on sequence alignment only appears in Figure S2, not in the main figures. Figure S2 is too complicated by so many opsins and residue positions. It will be difficult for general readers to follow the manuscript because of such an organization. I recommend the authors show key residues in Figure 1 by picking up from Figure S2.
(2) Halide size dependence. The authors observed spectral red-shift for larger halides. Their observation is fully coincident with the chromophore molecule in solution (Blatz et al. Biochemistry 1972), though the isomeric states are different (11-cis vs all-trans). This suggests that a halide ion is the hydrogen-bonding acceptor of the Schiff base N-H group in solution and ASO-II opsins. A halide ion is not the hydrogen-bonding acceptor in the structure of halorhodopsin, whose halide size dependence is not clearly correlated with absorption maxima (Scharf and Engelhard, Biochemistry 1994). These results support their model structure (Figure 4), and help QM/MM calculations.
(3) QM/MM calculations. According to Materials and Methods, the authors added water molecules to the structure and performed their calculations. However, Figure 4 does not include such water molecules, and no information was given in the manuscript. In addition, no information was given for the chloride binding site (contact residues) in Figure 4. More detailed information should be shown with additional figures in Figure SX.
(4) Figure 5 clearly shows much lower activity of E292A than that of WT, whose expression levels are unclear. How did the authors normalize (or not normalize) expression levels in this experiment?
(5) The authors propose the counterion switching from a chloride ion to E292 upon light activation. A schematic drawing on the chromophore, a chloride ion, and E292 (and possible surroundings) in Antho2a and the photoproduct will aid readers' understanding.
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Reviewer #2 (Public review):
Summary:
This work reports the discovery of a new rhodopsin from reef-building corals that is characterized experimentally, spectroscopically, and by simulation. This rhodopsin lacks a carboxylate-based counterion, which is typical for this family of proteins. Instead, the authors find that a chloride ion stabilizes the protonated Schiff base and thus serves as a counterion.
Strengths:
This work focuses on the rhodopsin Antho2a, which absorbs in the visible spectrum with a maximum at 503 nm. Spectroscopic studies under different pH conditions, including the mutant E292A and different chloride concentrations, indicate that chloride acts as a counterion in the dark. In the photoproduct, however, the counterion is identified as E292.
These results lead to a computational model of Antho2a in which the chloride …
Reviewer #2 (Public review):
Summary:
This work reports the discovery of a new rhodopsin from reef-building corals that is characterized experimentally, spectroscopically, and by simulation. This rhodopsin lacks a carboxylate-based counterion, which is typical for this family of proteins. Instead, the authors find that a chloride ion stabilizes the protonated Schiff base and thus serves as a counterion.
Strengths:
This work focuses on the rhodopsin Antho2a, which absorbs in the visible spectrum with a maximum at 503 nm. Spectroscopic studies under different pH conditions, including the mutant E292A and different chloride concentrations, indicate that chloride acts as a counterion in the dark. In the photoproduct, however, the counterion is identified as E292.
These results lead to a computational model of Antho2a in which the chloride is modeled in addition to the Schiff base. This model is improved using the hybrid QM/MM simulations. As a validation, the absorption maximum is calculated using the QM/MM approach for the protonated and deprotonated E292 residue as well as the E292A mutant. The results are in good agreement with the experiment. However, there is a larger deviation for ADC(2) than for sTD-DFT. Nevertheless, the trend is robust since the wt and E292A mutant models have similar excitation energies. The calculations are performed at a high level of theory that includes a large QM region.
Weaknesses:
I have a couple of questions about this study:
(1) I find it suspicious that the absorption maximum is so close to that of rhodopsin when the counterion is very different. Is it possible that the chloride creates an environment for the deprotonated E292, which is the actual counterion?
(2) The computational protocol states that water molecules have been added to the predicted protein structure. Are there water molecules next to the Schiff base, E292, and Cl-? If so, where are they located in the QM region?
(3) If the E292 residue is the counterion in the photoproduct state, I would expect the retinal Schiff base to rotate toward this side chain upon isomerization. Can this be modeled based on the recent XFEL results on rhodopsin?
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Reviewer #3 (Public review):
Summary:
The paper by Saito et al. studies the properties of anthozoan-specific opsins (ASO-II) from organisms found in reef-building coral. Their goal was to test if ASO-II opsins can absorb visible light, and if so, what the key factors involved are.
The most exciting aspect of this work is their discovery that ASO-II opsins do not have a counterion residue (Asp or Glu) located at any of the previously known sites found in other animal opsins.
This is very surprising. Opsins are only able to absorb visible (long wavelength light) if the retinal Schiff base is protonated, and the latter requires (as the name implies) a "counter ion". However, the authors clearly show that some ASO-II opsins do absorb visible light.
To address this conundrum, they tested if the counterion could be provided by exogenous …
Reviewer #3 (Public review):
Summary:
The paper by Saito et al. studies the properties of anthozoan-specific opsins (ASO-II) from organisms found in reef-building coral. Their goal was to test if ASO-II opsins can absorb visible light, and if so, what the key factors involved are.
The most exciting aspect of this work is their discovery that ASO-II opsins do not have a counterion residue (Asp or Glu) located at any of the previously known sites found in other animal opsins.
This is very surprising. Opsins are only able to absorb visible (long wavelength light) if the retinal Schiff base is protonated, and the latter requires (as the name implies) a "counter ion". However, the authors clearly show that some ASO-II opsins do absorb visible light.
To address this conundrum, they tested if the counterion could be provided by exogenous chloride ions (Cl-). Their results find compelling evidence supporting this idea, and their studies of ASO-II mutant E292A suggest E292 also plays a role in G protein activation and is a counterion for a protonated Schiff base in the light-activated form.
Strengths:
Overall, the methods are well-described and carefully executed, and the results are very compelling.
Their analysis of seven ASO-II opsin sequences undoubtedly shows they all lack a Glu or Asp residue at "normal" (previously established) counter-ion sites in mammalian opsins (typically found at positions 94, 113, or 181). The experimental studies clearly demonstrate the necessity of Cl- for visible light absorbance, as do their studies of the effect of altering the pH.
Importantly, the authors also carried out careful QM/MM computational analysis (and corresponding calculation of the expected absorbance effects), thus providing compelling support for the Cl- acting directly as a counterion to the protonated retinal Schiff base, and thus limiting the possibility that the Cl- is simply altering the absorbance of ASO-II opsins through some indirect effect on the protein.
Altogether, the authors achieved their aims, and the results support their conclusions. The manuscript is carefully written, and refreshingly, the results and conclusions are not overstated.
This study is impactful for several reasons. There is increasing interest in optogenetic tools, especially those that leverage G protein-coupled receptor systems. Thus, the authors' demonstration that ASO-II opsins could be useful for such studies is of interest.
Moreover, the finding that visible light absorbance by an opsin does not absolutely require a negatively charged amino acid to be placed at one of the expected sites (94, 113, or 181) typically found in animal opsins is very intriguing and will help future protein engineering efforts. The argument that the Cl- counterion system they discover here might have been a preliminary step in the evolution of amino acid based counterions used in animal opsins is also interesting.
Finally, given the ongoing degradation of coral reefs worldwide, the focus on these curious opsins is very timely, as is the authors' proposal that the lower Schiff base pKa they discovered here for ASO-II opsins may cause them to change their spectral sensitivity and G protein activation due to changes in their environmental pH.
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