IDH1 regulates human erythropoiesis by eliciting chromatin state reprogramming in a metabolic enzyme independent manner
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This study presents an important finding on the metabolism-independent role of IDH1 in regulating nuclear chromatin during terminal erythropoiesis. The evidence supporting IDH1's role on chromatin regulation is solid, but the analysis of its proposed non-metabolic activity is incomplete. The mechanistic perspective of this work, along with other intriguing observations, such as the connection between NAD+-dependent deacetylase SIRT1 and IDH1, should be of great interest to researchers working on erythropoiesis and erythroid disorders.
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Abstract
Isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) is the key enzyme that was involved in the modulation of cellular metabolism, epigenetic modification and redox states homeostasis. Gain-of-function mutations and decreased expression of IDH1 have been demonstrated to be tightly associated with the pathogenesis of various myeloid malignancies characterized by ineffective erythropoiesis, such as acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). However, the function and mechanism of IDH1 in human erythropoiesis still remains to be further explored. Here, utilizing the human erythropoiesis system, we present an innovative perspective of nuclear IDH1-mediated chromatin state reprogramming, besides its well-characterized metabolism effects. We showed that Knockdown of IDH1 induced chromatin reorganization and subsequently led to abnormalities of various key biological events in erythroid precursors, which could not be rescued by addition of reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavengers or supplementation of α-ketoglutarate (α-KG). Further analyzing indicated that IDH1 partially translocated into nuclear and acting as chromatin-binding protein. These findings strongly suggest nuclear located IDH1 elicited its effect in an enzymatic activity independent manner. We further revealed that deficiency of IDH1 induces genome-wide changes in distribution and intensity of multiple histone marks, among which H3K79me3 was identified as a critical factor in chromatin state reprogramming. Integrated analysis of ChIP-seq, ATAC-seq and RNA-seq recognized that SIRT1 was the key gene affected by IDH1 deficiency. Thus, our current work provided novel insights for further clarifying fundamental biological function of IDH1 which has substantial implications for an in-depth understanding of pathogenesis of diseases with IDH1 dysfunction and accordingly development of therapeutic strategies.
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eLife assessment
This study presents an important finding on the metabolism-independent role of IDH1 in regulating nuclear chromatin during terminal erythropoiesis. The evidence supporting IDH1's role on chromatin regulation is solid, but the analysis of its proposed non-metabolic activity is incomplete. The mechanistic perspective of this work, along with other intriguing observations, such as the connection between NAD+-dependent deacetylase SIRT1 and IDH1, should be of great interest to researchers working on erythropoiesis and erythroid disorders.
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Reviewer #1 (Public Review):
The manuscript by Li et al. investigates the metabolism-independent role of nuclear IDH1 in chromatin state reprogramming during erythropoiesis. The authors describe accumulation and redistribution of histone H3K79me3, and downregulation of SIRT1, as a cause for dyserythropoiesis observed due to IDH1 deficiency. The authors studied the consequences of IDH1 knockdown, and targeted knockout of nuclear IDH1, in normal human erythroid cells derived from hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells and HUDEP2 cells respectively. They further correlate some of the observations such as nuclear localization of IDH1 and aberrant localization of histone modifications in MDS and AML patient samples harboring IDH1 mutations. These observations are intriguing from a mechanistic perspective and they hold therapeutic …
Reviewer #1 (Public Review):
The manuscript by Li et al. investigates the metabolism-independent role of nuclear IDH1 in chromatin state reprogramming during erythropoiesis. The authors describe accumulation and redistribution of histone H3K79me3, and downregulation of SIRT1, as a cause for dyserythropoiesis observed due to IDH1 deficiency. The authors studied the consequences of IDH1 knockdown, and targeted knockout of nuclear IDH1, in normal human erythroid cells derived from hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells and HUDEP2 cells respectively. They further correlate some of the observations such as nuclear localization of IDH1 and aberrant localization of histone modifications in MDS and AML patient samples harboring IDH1 mutations. These observations are intriguing from a mechanistic perspective and they hold therapeutic significance, however there are major concerns that make the inferences presented in the manuscript less convincing.
(1) The authors show the presence of nuclear IDH1 both by cell fractionation and IF, and employ an efficient strategy to knock out nuclear IDH1 (knockout IDH1/ Sg-IDH1 and rescue with the NES tagged IDH1/ Sg-NES-IDH1 that does not enter the nucleus) in HUDEP2 cells. However, some important controls are missing.
A) In Figure 3C, for IDH1 staining, Sg-IDH1 knockout control is missing.
B) Wild-type IDH1 rescue control (ie., IDH1 without NES tag) is missing to gauge the maximum rescue that is possible with this system.(2) Considering the nuclear knockout of IDH1 (Sg-NES-IDH1 referenced in the previous point) is a key experimental system that the authors have employed to delineate non-metabolic functions of IDH1 in human erythropoiesis, some critical experiments are lacking to make convincing inferences.
A) The authors rely on IF to show the nuclear deletion of Sg-NES-IDH1 HUDEP2 cells. As mentioned earlier since a knockout control is missing in IF experiments, a cellular fractionation experiment (similar to what is shown in Figure 2F) is required to convincingly show the nuclear deletion in these cells.
B) Since the authors attribute nuclear localization to a lack of metabolic/enzymatic functions, it is important to show the status of ROS and alpha-KG in the Sg-NES-IDH1 in comparison to control, wild type rescue, and knockout HUDEP2 cells. The authors observe an increase of ROS and a decrease of alpha-KG upon IDH1 knockdown. If nuclear IDH1 is not involved in metabolic functions, is there only a minimal or no impact of the nuclear knockout of IDH1 on ROS and alpha-KG, in comparison to complete knockout? These studies are lacking.
C) Authors show that later stages of terminal differentiation are impacted in IDH1 knockdown human erythroid cells. They also report abnormal nuclear morphology, an increase in euchromatin, and enucleation defects. However, the authors only report abnormal nuclear morphology in Sg-NES-IDH1 cells, as evaluated by cytospins. It is important to show the status of the other phenotypes (progression through terminal differentiation, euchromatin %, and enucleation) similar to the quantitations in the IDH1 knockdown cells.(3) The authors report abnormal nuclear phenotype in IDH1 deficient erythroid cells. It is not clear what parameters are used here to define and quantify abnormal nuclei. Based on the cytospins (eg., Figure 1A, 3D) many multinucleated cells are seen in both shIDH1 and Sg-NES-IDH1 erythroid cells, compared to control cells. Importantly, this phenotype and enucleation defects are not rescued by the administration of alpha-KG (Figures 1E, F). The authors study these nuclei with electron microscopy and report increased euchromatin in Figure 4B. However, there is no discussion or quantification of polyploidy/multinucleation in the IDH1 deficient cells, despite their increased presence in the cytospins.
A) PI staining followed by cell cycle FACS will be helpful in gauging the extent of polyploidy in IDH1 deficient cells and could add to the discussions of the defects related to abnormal nuclei.
B) For electron microscopy quantification in Figures 4B and C, how the quantification was done and the labelling of the y-axis (% of euchromatin and heterochromatin) in Figure 4 C is not clear and is confusingly presented. The details on how the quantification was done and a clear label (y-axis in Figure 4C) for the quantification are needed.
C) As mentioned earlier, what parameters were used to define and quantify abnormal nuclei (e.g. Figure 1A) needs to be discussed clearly. The red arrows in Figure 1A all point to bi/multinucleated cells. If this is the case, this needs to be made clear.(4) The authors mention that their previous study (reference #22) showed that ROS scavengers did not rescue dyseythropoiesis in shIDH1 cells. However, in this referenced study they did report that vitamin C, a ROS scavenger, partially rescued enucleation in IDH1 deficient cells and completely suppressed abnormal nuclei in both control and IDH1 deficient cells, in addition to restoring redox homeostasis by scavenging reactive oxygen species in shIDH1 erythroid cells. In the current study, the authors used ROS scavengers GSH and NAC in shIDH1 erythroid cells and showed that they do not rescue abnormal nuclei phenotype and enucleation defects. The differences between the results in their previous study with vitamin C vs GSH and NAC in the context of IDH1 deficiency need to be discussed.
(5) The authors describe an increase in euchromatin as the consequential abnormal nuclei phenotype in shIDH1 erythroid cells. However, in their RNA-seq, they observe an almost equal number of genes that are up and down-regulated in shIDH1 cells compared to control cells. If possible, an RNA-Seq in nuclear knockout Sg-NES-IDH1 erythroid cells in comparison with knockout and wild-type cells will be helpful to tease out whether a specific absence of IDH1 in the nucleus (ie., lack of metabolic functions of IDH) impacts gene expression differently.
(6) In Figure 8, the authors show data related to SIRT1's role in mediating non-metabolic, chromatin-associated functions of IDH1.
A) The authors show that SIRT1 inhibition leads to a rescue of enucleation and abnormal nuclei. However, whether this rescues the progression through the late stages of terminal differentiation and the euchromatin/heterochromatin ratio is not clear.
B) In addition, since the authors attribute a role of SIRT1 in mediating non-metabolic chromatin-associated functions of IDH1, documenting ROS levels and alpha-KG is important, to compare with what they showed for shIDH1 cells.(7) In Figure 4 and Supplemental Figure 8, the authors show the accumulation and altered cellular localization of H3K79me3, H3K9me3, and H3K27me2, and the lack of accumulation of other three histone modifications they tested (H3K4me3, H3K35me4, and H3K36me2) in shIDH1 cells. They also show the accumulation and altered localization of the specific histone marks in Sg-NES-IDH1 HUDEP2 cells.
A) To aid better comparison of these histone modifications, it will be helpful to show the cell fractionation data of the three histone modifications that did not accumulate (H3K4me3, H3K35me4, and H3K36me2), similar to what was shown in Figure 4E for H3K79me3, H3K9me3, and H3K27me2).
B) Further, the cell fractionation and staining for histone marks is done in human primary erythroid cells on day15 of terminal differentiation, and these studies revealed that H3K79me3, H3K9me3, and H3K27me2 were retained in the nucleus in shIDH1 cells unlike a cellular localization observed in control cells. The authors cite reference #40 in relation to the cellular localization of histones - in this study, it was shown that the cellular export of histone to cytosol happens during later stages of terminal differentiation. In the current manuscript, the authors observe nuclear IDH1 throughout erythropoiesis and have shown this at both early and late time points of differentiation (between day7 to day15 of differentiation in primary erythroid cells, between day0 to day8 in HUDEP2 cells) in Figure 2. To help correlate the dynamics of localization and to discuss the mechanism for the retention of histone marks in the nucleus in IDH1 deficient cells, it will be helpful to show the cellular location of histone marks using cell fractionations for both early and late time points in terminal erythroid differentiation, similar to what they showed for IDH1 localization studies.
C) Among the three histone marks that are dysregulated in IDH1 deficient cells (H3K79me3, H3K9me3, and H3K27me2), the authors show via ChIP-seq (Fig5) that H3K79me3 is the critical factor. However, the ChIP-seq data shown here lacks many details and this makes it hard to interpret the data. For example, in Figure 5A, they do not mention which samples the data shown correspond to (are these differential peaks in shIDH1 compared to shLuc cells?). There is also no mention of how many replicates were used for the ChIP seq studies. -
Reviewer #2 (Public Review):
Li and colleagues investigate the enzymatic activity-independent function of IDH1 in regulating erythropoiesis. This manuscript reveals that IDH1 deficiency in the nucleus leads to the redistribution of histone marks (especially H3K79me3) and chromatin state reprogramming. Their findings suggest a non-typical localization and function of the metabolic enzyme, providing new insights for further studies into the non-metabolic roles of metabolic enzymes. However, there are still some issues that need addressing:
(1) Could the authors show the RNA and protein expression levels (without fractionation) of IDH1 on different days throughout the human CD34+ erythroid differentiation?
(2) Even though the human CD34+ erythroid differentiation protocol was published and cited in the manuscript, it would be helpful to …
Reviewer #2 (Public Review):
Li and colleagues investigate the enzymatic activity-independent function of IDH1 in regulating erythropoiesis. This manuscript reveals that IDH1 deficiency in the nucleus leads to the redistribution of histone marks (especially H3K79me3) and chromatin state reprogramming. Their findings suggest a non-typical localization and function of the metabolic enzyme, providing new insights for further studies into the non-metabolic roles of metabolic enzymes. However, there are still some issues that need addressing:
(1) Could the authors show the RNA and protein expression levels (without fractionation) of IDH1 on different days throughout the human CD34+ erythroid differentiation?
(2) Even though the human CD34+ erythroid differentiation protocol was published and cited in the manuscript, it would be helpful to specify which erythroid stages correspond to cells on days 7, 9, 11, 13, and 15.
(3) It is important to mention on which day the lentiviral knockdown of IDH1 was performed. Will the phenotype differ if the knockdown is performed in early vs. late erythropoiesis? In Figures 1C and 1D, on which day do the authors begin the knockdown of IDH1 and administer NAC and GSH treatments?
(4) The authors validate that IDH1 regulates erythropoiesis in an enzymatic activity-independent manner by adding ROS scavengers or α-KG. Given the complexity of metabolic pathways, these two strategies may not suffice. Mutating the enzymatic active site could provide a clearer explanation for this point.
(5) While the cell phenotype of IDH1 deficiency is quite dramatic, yielding cells with larger nuclei and multi-nuclei, the authors only attribute this phenotype to defects in chromatin condensation. Is it possible that IDH1-knockdown cells also exhibit primary defects in mitosis/cytokinesis (not just secondary to the nuclear condensation defect)?), given the function of H3K79Me in cell cycle regulation?
(6) Why are there two bands of Histone H3 in Figure 4A?
(7) Are the density and localization of histone modifications (not just H3K79me3) in Sg-NEG-IDH1 HuDEP2 cells similar to those in IDH1-shRNA erythroid cells compared to control cells?
(8) Displaying a heatmap and profile plots in Figure 5A between control and IDH1-deficient cells will help illustrate changes in H3K79me3 density in the nucleus after IDH1 knockdown.
(9) Are the distribution and intensity of H3K79me3 in primary healthy erythroid cells in the bone marrow similar to or distinct from those in AML and MDS cells? The authors could present at least one sample of healthy donor cells for comparison.
(10) In Figure 7E, why are the bands of Luciferase-shRNA in the input and probe both light, while the bands of IDH1-shRNA are both dark? This suggests that the expression of KLF1 is much higher in IDH1-shRNA cells than in control cells. Therefore, this result may not strongly support the increased binding of KLF1 at the SIRT1 promoter after IDH1 knockdown.
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Reviewer #3 (Public Review):
Li, Zhang, Wu, and colleagues describe a new role for nuclear IDH1 in erythroid differentiation independent from its enzymatic function. IDH1 depletion results in a terminal erythroid differentiation defect with polychromatic and orthochromatic erythroblasts showing abnormal nuclei, nuclear condensation defects, and an increased proportion of euchromatin, as well as enucleation defects. Using ChIP-seq for the histone modifications H3K79me3, H3K27me2, and H3K9me3, as well as ATAC-seq and RNA-seq in primary CD34-derived erythroblasts, the authors elucidate SIRT1 as a key dysregulated gene that is upregulated upon IDH1 knockdown. They furthermore show that chemical inhibition of SIRT1 partially rescues the abnormal nuclear morphology and enucleation defect during IDH1-deficient erythroid differentiation. The …
Reviewer #3 (Public Review):
Li, Zhang, Wu, and colleagues describe a new role for nuclear IDH1 in erythroid differentiation independent from its enzymatic function. IDH1 depletion results in a terminal erythroid differentiation defect with polychromatic and orthochromatic erythroblasts showing abnormal nuclei, nuclear condensation defects, and an increased proportion of euchromatin, as well as enucleation defects. Using ChIP-seq for the histone modifications H3K79me3, H3K27me2, and H3K9me3, as well as ATAC-seq and RNA-seq in primary CD34-derived erythroblasts, the authors elucidate SIRT1 as a key dysregulated gene that is upregulated upon IDH1 knockdown. They furthermore show that chemical inhibition of SIRT1 partially rescues the abnormal nuclear morphology and enucleation defect during IDH1-deficient erythroid differentiation. The phenotype of delayed erythroid maturation and enucleation upon IDH1 shRNA-mediated knockdown was described in the group's previous co-authored study (PMID: 33535038). The authors' new hypothesis of an enzyme- and metabolism-independent role of IDH1 in this process is currently not supported by conclusive experimental evidence as discussed in more detail further below. On the other hand, while the dependency of IDH1 mutant cells on NAD+, as well as cell survival benefit upon SIRT1 inhibition, has already been shown (see, e.g, PMID: 26678339, PMID: 32710757), previous studies focused on cancer cell lines and did not look at a developmental differentiation process, which makes this study interesting.
(1) The central hypothesis that IDH1 has a role independent of its enzymatic function is interesting but not supported by the experiments. One of the author's supporting arguments for their claim is that alpha-ketoglutarate (aKG) does not rescue the IDH1 phenotype of reduced enucleation. However, in the group's previous co-authored study (PMID: 33535038), they show that when IDH1 is knocked down, the addition of aKG even exacerbates the reduced enucleation phenotype, which could indicate that aKG catalysis by cytoplasmic IDH1 enzyme is important during terminal erythroid differentiation. A definitive experiment to test the requirement of IDH1's enzymatic function in erythropoiesis would be to knock down/out IDH1 and re-express an IDH1 catalytic site mutant. The authors perform an interesting genetic manipulation in HUDEP-2 cells to address a nucleus-specific role of IDH1 through CRISPR/Cas-mediated IDH1 knockout followed by overexpression of an IDH1 construct containing a nuclear export signal. However, this system is only used to show nuclear abnormalities and (not quantified) accumulation of H3K79me3 upon nuclear exclusion of IDH1. Otherwise, a global IDH1 shRNA knockdown approach is employed, which will affect both forms of IDH1, cytoplasmic and nuclear. In this system and even the NES-IDH1 system, an enzymatic role of IDH1 cannot be excluded because (1) shRNA selection takes several days, prohibiting the assessment of direct effects of IDH1 loss of function (only a degron approach could address this if IDH1's half-life is short), and (2) metabolic activity of this part of the TCA cycle in the nucleus has recently been demonstrated (PMID: 36044572), and thus even a nuclear role of IDH1 could be linked to its enzymatic function, which makes it a challenging task to separate two functions if they exist.
(2) It is not clear how the enrichment of H3K9me3, a prominent marker of heterochromatin, upon IDH1 knockdown in the primary erythroid culture (Figure 4), goes along with a 2-3-fold increase in euchromatin. Furthermore, in the immunofluorescence (IF) experiments presented in Figure 4Db, it seems that H3K9me3 levels decrease in intensity (the signal seems more diffuse), which seems to contrast the ChIP-seq data. It would be interesting to test for localization of other heterochromatin marks such as HP1gamma. As a related point, it is not clear at what stage of erythroid differentiation the ATAC-seq was performed upon luciferase- and IDH1-shRNA-mediated knockdown shown in Figure 6. If it was done at a similar stage (Day 15) as the electron microscopy in Figure 4B, then the authors should explain the discrepancy between the vast increase in euchromatin and the rather small increase in ATAC-seq signal upon IDH1 knockdown.
(3) The subcellular localization of IDH1, in particular its presence on chromatin, is not convincing in light of histone H3 being enriched in the cytoplasm on the same Western blot. H3 would be expected to be mostly localized to the chromatin fraction (see, e.g., PMID: 31408165 that the authors cite). The same issue is seen in Figure 4A.
(4) This manuscript will highly benefit from more precise and complete explanations of the experiments performed, the material and methods used, and the results presented. At times, the wording is confusing. As an example, one of the "Key points" is described as "Dyserythropoiesis is caused by downregulation of SIRT1 induced by H3K79me3 accumulation." It should probably read "upregulation of SIRT1".
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