Exercise-Induced Hypoalgesia Following High- vs. Low-Intensity Aerobic Exercise in Fit Females
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Curated by eLife
eLife Assessment
This study proposes that fitness level influences exercise-induced hypoalgesia in women. However, the evidence to support this claim is incomplete: the conclusions rely on a small interaction that emerges only under specific conditions and are incongruent with the title, the findings are inconsistent across pain modalities and stimulus intensities, the analysis approach does not fully exploit the continuous pain ratings collected, and the absence of a baseline condition limits the interpretability of results as reflecting true hypoalgesia. Additionally, the methods by which fitness level was categorized across cohorts can be questioned, and the results and figures do not clearly illustrate how between-group comparisons were conducted. With a proper revision, it could be useful for sports medicine practitioners to consider how they administer exercise protocols to help those experiencing pain.
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Abstract
In a previous study by our group (Nold et al., 2025), we investigated exercise-induced pain modulation after high-intensity compared to low-intensity exercise in a heterogeneous sample of diverse fitness levels. Exploratory analyses suggested an interaction of sex, fitness level, and drug treatment, indicating that males showed increasing hypoalgesia after high-compared to low-intensity exercise with increasing fitness levels, which was diminished when naloxone was administered. In contrast, these effects were not evident in females. These exploratory findings warranted further investigation to determine if and to what extent exercise-induced hypoalgesia depends on fitness level and/or sex. In this current study, we investigated an all-female sample ( N = 21) of high fitness levels using a similar paradigm as in the previous study, comparing heat and pressure pain ratings after high-intensity and low-intensity exercise. Our data show an interaction of exercise intensity and stimulus intensity in heat pain, with greater pain relief following high-intensity exercise, especially at the highest stimulus intensity. Despite results for pressure pain not reaching significance, a similar trend was evident. These results suggest that females at a high fitness level also show exercise-induced hypoalgesia for high-intensity compared to low-intensity exercise. Together with our previous findings, this suggests that exercise-induced hypoalgesia depends on fitness level but not on sex.
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eLife Assessment
This study proposes that fitness level influences exercise-induced hypoalgesia in women. However, the evidence to support this claim is incomplete: the conclusions rely on a small interaction that emerges only under specific conditions and are incongruent with the title, the findings are inconsistent across pain modalities and stimulus intensities, the analysis approach does not fully exploit the continuous pain ratings collected, and the absence of a baseline condition limits the interpretability of results as reflecting true hypoalgesia. Additionally, the methods by which fitness level was categorized across cohorts can be questioned, and the results and figures do not clearly illustrate how between-group comparisons were conducted. With a proper revision, it could be useful for sports medicine practitioners to …
eLife Assessment
This study proposes that fitness level influences exercise-induced hypoalgesia in women. However, the evidence to support this claim is incomplete: the conclusions rely on a small interaction that emerges only under specific conditions and are incongruent with the title, the findings are inconsistent across pain modalities and stimulus intensities, the analysis approach does not fully exploit the continuous pain ratings collected, and the absence of a baseline condition limits the interpretability of results as reflecting true hypoalgesia. Additionally, the methods by which fitness level was categorized across cohorts can be questioned, and the results and figures do not clearly illustrate how between-group comparisons were conducted. With a proper revision, it could be useful for sports medicine practitioners to consider how they administer exercise protocols to help those experiencing pain.
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Reviewer #1 (Public review):
Summary:
The current study is a follow-up to a previously published study by the same research group (Nold et al. 2025). In the previous study, the authors had included a set of exploratory analyses which assessed the effects of fitness level (denominated by a relative FTP), sex, and drug treatment (Naxolone versus placebo). In this previous study, the authors state that "exploratory analysis showed a significant main effect of fitness level on differences in pain ratings in the [saline] condition... suggesting increased hypoalgesia with increasing fitness levels, pooled across all stimulus intensities".
In the current study, the authors have recruited an additional 22 female participants (21 included in analysis) from local cycling clubs to assess if fitness level does indeed impact exercise-induced …
Reviewer #1 (Public review):
Summary:
The current study is a follow-up to a previously published study by the same research group (Nold et al. 2025). In the previous study, the authors had included a set of exploratory analyses which assessed the effects of fitness level (denominated by a relative FTP), sex, and drug treatment (Naxolone versus placebo). In this previous study, the authors state that "exploratory analysis showed a significant main effect of fitness level on differences in pain ratings in the [saline] condition... suggesting increased hypoalgesia with increasing fitness levels, pooled across all stimulus intensities".
In the current study, the authors have recruited an additional 22 female participants (21 included in analysis) from local cycling clubs to assess if fitness level does indeed impact exercise-induced hypoalgesia responses to experimental thermal and pressure pain models.
Strengths:
The current study has the potential to present a convincing argument about the effect of fitness level and potentially other factors (e.g., sex) on exercise-induced hypoalgesia responses. Combining data across two of their primary studies would be highly fruitful to the research community interested in this area. Specifically, it has the potential to inform sports medicine practitioners and how they administer exercise protocols to help those experiencing pain with a further consideration for the fitness level (and maybe sex) of their patients.
Weaknesses:
However, the current study makes several bold claims about the role of fitness level and sex on exercise-induced hypoalgesia, which I do not believe that this study on its own - or in conjunction with the previously published study by the same authors - can make at present. Namely, the current study does not appear to conduct any specific analyses between the cohorts from either study (current and present). The results mention a difference in the group mean values in "fitness level" between cohorts, but the analysis itself on pain responses/exercise-induced hypoalgesia is limited only to the cohort from the current study. If the authors wanted to provide a convincing argument that fitness level has an effect on exercise-induced hypoalgesia, then the analysis of this study would have to include an analysis between the groups considered to be of "high" and "low" fitness level. I do not think the current study does this. Instead, it makes an assumption from the previous study (Nold et al. 2025) which only states that "exploratory analysis showed a significant main effect of fitness level on differences in pain ratings in the [saline] condition... suggesting increased hypoalgesia with increasing fitness levels, pooled across all stimulus intensities". The analysis of this study would have to include fitness level "high fitness" versus "low fitness" of participants across both studies in its statistical model to properly discern if fitness level has an impact on exercise-induced hypoalgesia.
A similar comment can be made with respect to sex differences, as these have not been assessed in the analysis of this study either.
Another area of weakness in this study is how "fitness level" has been demarcated across participants. One issue is how authors have assumed that the current cohort is 'fit', whereas the previous cohort was 'less fit', meaning that the authors could be coming to false conclusions about fitness level. In detail, figures within the current study show a large overlap between the 'fit' and 'less fit' cohorts, where some participants have a higher relative functional threshold power (FTP) in the 'less fit' cohort than the 'fit' cohort and vice versa. Therefore, I believe the authors should better demarcate between those that are in the 'more fit' and 'less fit' groups according to a validated and well-established criterion from the kinesiology and sport science literature. That being said, I think this may be problematic in some ways as FTP is considered a relatively poor measure to denote fitness levels, a limitation highlighted in the previous study's review.
Altogether, whilst I commend the researchers on their body of work across the two studies, the current methods and analysis provide an incomplete assessment of their primary research question, and therefore, I would urge the authors to reconsider some of their methods/analysis and the framing of their results to better reflect the main research question they have attempted to answer. Likewise, I would recommend that readers ensure they consider the current results with caution until the authors have addressed some areas of concern which currently limit their main conclusions.
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Reviewer #2 (Public review):
This study addresses an important question regarding exercise-induced modulation of pain in women, but the conclusions appear to be based on relatively limited and selective evidence. The authors report an interaction between exercise intensity and stimulus intensity, which they interpret as evidence for exercise-induced hypoalgesia and conclude that fitness, but not sex, modulates this effect. However, this main result relies on a relatively small interaction that emerges only under specific conditions, with inconsistent findings across pain modalities and stimulus intensities, and an analysis approach that does not fully exploit the continuous pain ratings collected. The lack of a baseline condition further limits the interpretability of the findings as reflecting hypoalgesia, and overall, the data provide …
Reviewer #2 (Public review):
This study addresses an important question regarding exercise-induced modulation of pain in women, but the conclusions appear to be based on relatively limited and selective evidence. The authors report an interaction between exercise intensity and stimulus intensity, which they interpret as evidence for exercise-induced hypoalgesia and conclude that fitness, but not sex, modulates this effect. However, this main result relies on a relatively small interaction that emerges only under specific conditions, with inconsistent findings across pain modalities and stimulus intensities, and an analysis approach that does not fully exploit the continuous pain ratings collected. The lack of a baseline condition further limits the interpretability of the findings as reflecting hypoalgesia, and overall, the data provide a rather constrained basis for drawing broader conclusions.
Strengths:
(1) The focus on women is important and timely, particularly given the ambiguity in prior findings and the historical bias toward male-dominated samples.
(2) The attempt to revisit previous findings in a new cohort is valuable in principle.
Weaknesses:
(1) The core interpretation may not be fully supported by the data
The central claim-that the results demonstrate exercise-induced hypoalgesia and its dependence on fitness but not sex-does not appear to be fully supported by the evidence presented.
1.1 Lack of baseline condition
The absence of a no-exercise baseline substantially limits interpretation. The study compares high- and low-intensity exercise, but without a baseline, it is not possible to determine whether either condition produces hypoalgesia or hyperalgesia relative to calibration. The observed HI-LI difference, therefore, reflects only a relative contrast between exercise intensities, not an absolute reduction in pain. As a result, attributing the findings to "hypoalgesia" may be difficult to justify fully.
1.2 Lack of internal replication across conditions
The reported effect is highly specific and does not clearly generalise across the experimental design. It emerges significantly only for heat pain at the highest stimulus intensity, with no clear effects for other intensities and for pressure pain. Moreover, the main statistical result is a relatively small interaction effect with a modest p value, which translates into a difference of approximately 6-8 VAS units on a 150 scale. This combination-a small effect size, limited statistical strength, and restriction to a single condition-substantially weakens the evidence for a robust or generalisable effect.
1.3 Deviations from the original study and selective use of data
Although framed as a follow-up to previous work, the current study introduces substantial methodological changes, particularly in the acquisition and scaling of pain ratings (continuous vs post-hoc ratings, modified VAS with sub-threshold range). Despite collecting rich continuous data, the analysis focuses on peak responses to approximate the previous study. While this may aid comparability, it results in a strong emphasis on a single data point (highest intensity), rather than leveraging the full dataset. This limits both interpretability and comparability.
1.4 Over-reliance on null results regarding sex differences
The conclusion that fitness, but not sex, modulates exercise-induced pain may not be directly supported by the data presented. The current study includes only highly fit women, and comparisons with men or less-fit women rely on non-significant differences in a previous cohort. The absence of a significant difference does not provide evidence for equivalence, and no formal statistical support for a null effect is provided. As such, conclusions about the absence of sex differences would unfortunately benefit from more cautious interpretation.
(2) Limited sample and lack of diversity
The dataset is narrow in scope, comprising a small sample (N = 21) of healthy, highly fit women. Key demographic characteristics (e.g. age range, BMI distribution) are not fully presented, explored or discussed. This limits generalisability and makes it difficult to draw broader conclusions about exercise-induced pain modulation in women, as the main focus of the study.
(3) Methodological choices limit the interpretability of the data
Several methodological decisions would benefit from stronger justification:
3.1 The use of a non-standard VAS scale (0-150 with a fixed pain threshold at 50) is unconventional and may influence how participants report pain, while limiting comparability with related literature.
3.2 Participants explicitly reported expecting exercise to reduce pain, introducing a potential confound that is not presently addressed.
3.3 A more comprehensive use of the full time series of pain ratings would provide a stronger and more transparent basis for interpretation of the present findings.
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