Prebiotic Gas Flow Environment Enables Isothermal Nucleic Acid Replication

  1. Philipp Schwintek
  2. Emre Eren
  3. Christof Mast
  4. Dieter Braun

  • Curated by eLife

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    eLife Assessment

    This important work shows how a simple geophysical setting of gas flow over a narrow channel of water can create a physical environment that leads to the isothermal replication of nucleic acids. The work presents convincing evidence for an isothermal polymerase chain reaction in careful experiments involving evaporation and convective flows, complimented with fluid dynamics simulations. This work will be of interest to scientists working on the origin of life and more broadly, on nucleic acids and diagnostic applications.

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Abstract

Nucleic acid replication is a central process at the origin of life. On early Earth, replication is challenged by the dilution of molecular building blocks and the difficulty of separating daughter from parent strands, a necessity for exponential replication. While thermal gradient systems have been shown to address these problems, elevated temperatures lead to degradation. Also, compared to constant temperature environments, such systems are rare. The isothermal system studied here models an abundant geological environment of the prebiotic Earth, in which water is continuously evaporated at the point of contact with the gas flows, inducing up-concentration and circular flow patterns at the gas-water interface through momentum transfer. We show experimentally that this setting drives a 30-fold accumulation of nucleic acids and their periodic separation by a 3-fold reduction in salt and product concentration. Fluid dynamic simulations agree with observations from tracking fluorescent beads. In this isothermal system, we were able to drive exponential DNA replication with Taq polymerase. The results provide a model for a ubiquitous non-equilibrium system to host early Darwinian molecular evolution at constant temperature.

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  1. Version published to 10.1101/2024.06.13.598889v2 on bioRxiv
  2. Version published to 10.7554/elife.100152 on eLife
  3. Version published to 10.7554/elife.100152.1 on eLife
  4. eLife

    eLife Assessment

    This important work shows how a simple geophysical setting of gas flow over a narrow channel of water can create a physical environment that leads to the isothermal replication of nucleic acids. The work presents convincing evidence for an isothermal polymerase chain reaction in careful experiments involving evaporation and convective flows, complimented with fluid dynamics simulations. This work will be of interest to scientists working on the origin of life and more broadly, on nucleic acids and diagnostic applications.

  5. eLife

    Reviewer #1 (Public review):

    This manuscript from Schwintek and coworkers describes a system in which gas flow across a small channel (10^-4-10^-3 m scale) enables the accumulation of reactants and convective flow. The authors go on to show that this can be used to perform PCR as a model of prebiotic replication.

    Strengths:

    The manuscript nicely extends the authors' prior work in thermophoresis and convection to gas flows. The demonstration of nucleic acid replication is an exciting one, and an enzyme-catalyzed proof-of-concept is a great first step towards a novel geochemical scenario for prebiotic replication reactions and other prebiotic chemistry.

    The manuscript nicely combines theory and experiment, which generally agree well with one another, and it convincingly shows that accumulation can be achieved with gas flows and that it can also be utilized in the same system for what one hopes is a precursor to a model prebiotic reaction. This continues efforts from Braun and Mast over the last 10-15 years extending a phenomenon that was appreciated by physicists and perhaps underappreciated in prebiotic chemistry to increasingly chemically relevant systems and, here, a pilot experiment with a simple biochemical system as a prebiotic model.

    I think this is exciting work and will be of broad interest to the prebiotic chemistry community.

    Weaknesses:

    The manuscript states: "The micro scale gas-water evaporation interface consisted of a 1.5 mm wide and 250 µm thick channel that carried an upward pure water flow of 4 nl/s ≈ 10 µm/s perpendicular to an air flow of about 250 ml/min ≈ 10 m/s." This was a bit confusing on first read because Figure 2 appears to show a larger channel - based on the scale bar, it appears to be about 2 mm across on the short axis and 5 mm across on the long axis. From reading the methods, one understands the thickness is associated with the Teflon, but the 1.5 mm dimension is still a bit confusing (and what is the dimension in the long axis?) It is a little hard to tell which portion (perhaps all?) of the image is the channel. This is because discontinuities are present on the left and right sides of the experimental panels (consistent with the image showing material beyond the channel), but not the simulated panels. Based on the authors' description of the apparatus (sapphire/CNC machined Teflon/sapphire) it sounds like the geometry is well-known to them. Clarifying what is going on here (and perhaps supplying the source images for the machined Teflon) would be helpful.

    The data shown in Figure 2d nicely shows nonrandom residuals (for experimental values vs. simulated) that are most pronounced at t~12 m and t~40-60m. It seems like this is (1) because some symmetry-breaking occurs that isn't accounted for by the model, and perhaps (2) because of the fact that these data are n=1. I think discussing what's going on with (1) would greatly improve the paper, and performing additional replicates to address (2) would be very informative and enhance the paper. Perhaps the negative and positive residuals would change sign in some, but not all, additional replicates?

    The authors will most likely be familiar with the work of Victor Ugaz and colleagues, in which they demonstrated Rayleigh-Bénard-driven PCR in convection cells (10.1126/science.298.5594.793, 10.1002/anie.200700306). Not including some discussion of this work is an unfortunate oversight, and addressing it would significantly improve the manuscript and provide some valuable context to readers. Something of particular interest would be their observation that wide circular cells gave chaotic temperature profiles relative to narrow ones and that these improved PCR amplification (10.1002/anie.201004217). I think contextualizing the results shown here in light of this paper would be helpful. Again, it appears n=1 is shown for Figure 4a-c - the source of the title claim of the paper - and showing some replicates and perhaps discussing them in the context of prior work would enhance the manuscript.

    I think some caution is warranted in interpreting the PCR results because a primer-dimer would be of essentially the same length as the product. It appears as though the experiment has worked as described, but it's very difficult to be certain of this given this limitation. Doing the PCR with a significantly longer amplicon would be ideal, or alternately discussing this possible limitation would be helpful to the readers in managing expectations.

  6. eLife

    Reviewer #2 (Public review):

    Schwintek et al. investigated whether a geological setting of a rock pore with water inflow on one end and gas passing over the opening of the pore on the other end could create a non-equilibrium system that sustains nucleic acid reactions under mild conditions. The evaporation of water as the gas passes over it concentrates the solutes at the boundary of evaporation, while the gas flux induces momentum transfer that creates currents in the water that push the concentrated molecules back into the bulk solution. This leads to the creation of steady-state regions of differential salt and macromolecule concentrations that can be used to manipulate nucleic acids. First, the authors showed that fluorescent bead behavior in this system closely matched their fluid dynamic simulations. With that validation in hand, the authors next showed that fluorescently labeled DNA behaved according to their theory as well. Using these insights, the authors performed a FRET experiment that clearly demonstrated the hybridization of two DNA strands as they passed through the high Mg++ concentration zone, and, conversely, the dissociation of the strands as they passed through the low Mg++ concentration zone. This isothermal hybridization and dissociation of DNA strands allowed the authors to perform an isothermal DNA amplification using a DNA polymerase enzyme. Crucially, the isothermal DNA amplification required the presence of the gas flux and could not be recapitulated using a system that was at equilibrium. These experiments advance our understanding of the geological settings that could support nucleic acid reactions that were key to the origin of life.

    The presented data compellingly supports the conclusions made by the authors. To increase the relevance of the work for the origin of life field, the following experiments are suggested:

    (1) While the central premise of this work is that RNA degradation presents a risk for strand separation strategies relying on elevated temperatures, all of the work is performed using DNA as the nucleic acid model. I understand the convenience of using DNA, especially in the latter replication experiment, but I think that at least the FRET experiments could be performed using RNA instead of DNA.

    (2) Additionally, showing that RNA does not degrade under the conditions employed by the authors (I am particularly worried about the high Mg++ zones created by the flux) would further strengthen the already very strong and compelling work.

    (3) Finally, I am curious whether the authors have considered designing a simulation or experiment that uses the imidazole- or 2′,3′-cyclic phosphate-activated ribonucleotides. For instance, a fully paired RNA duplex and a fluorescently-labeled primer could be incubated in the presence of activated ribonucleotides +/- flux and subsequently analyzed by gel electrophoresis to determine how much primer extension has occurred. The reason for this suggestion is that, due to the slow kinetics of chemical primer extension, the reannealing of the fully complementary strands as they pass through the high Mg++ zone, which is required for primer extension, may outcompete the primer extension reaction. In the case of the DNA polymerase, the enzymatic catalysis likely outcompetes the reannealing, but this may not recapitulate the uncatalyzed chemical reaction.

  7. eLife

    Author response:

    Reviewer #1 (Public review):

    This manuscript from Schwintek and coworkers describes a system in which gas flow across a small channel (10^-4-10^-3 m scale) enables the accumulation of reactants and convective flow. The authors go on to show that this can be used to perform PCR as a model of prebiotic replication.

    Strengths:

    The manuscript nicely extends the authors' prior work in thermophoresis and convection to gas flows. The demonstration of nucleic acid replication is an exciting one, and an enzyme-catalyzed proof-of-concept is a great first step towards a novel geochemical scenario for prebiotic replication reactions and other prebiotic chemistry.

    The manuscript nicely combines theory and experiment, which generally agree well with one another, and it convincingly shows that accumulation can be achieved with gas flows and that it can also be utilized in the same system for what one hopes is a precursor to a model prebiotic reaction. This continues efforts from Braun and Mast over the last 10-15 years extending a phenomenon that was appreciated by physicists and perhaps underappreciated in prebiotic chemistry to increasingly chemically relevant systems and, here, a pilot experiment with a simple biochemical system as a prebiotic model.

    I think this is exciting work and will be of broad interest to the prebiotic chemistry community.

    Weaknesses:

    The manuscript states: "The micro scale gas-water evaporation interface consisted of a 1.5 mm wide and 250 µm thick channel that carried an upward pure water flow of 4 nl/s ≈ 10 µm/s perpendicular to an air flow of about 250 ml/min ≈ 10 m/s." This was a bit confusing on first read because Figure 2 appears to show a larger channel - based on the scale bar, it appears to be about 2 mm across on the short axis and 5 mm across on the long axis. From reading the methods, one understands the thickness is associated with the Teflon, but the 1.5 mm dimension is still a bit confusing (and what is the dimension in the long axis?) It is a little hard to tell which portion (perhaps all?) of the image is the channel. This is because discontinuities are present on the left and right sides of the experimental panels (consistent with the image showing material beyond the channel), but not the simulated panels. Based on the authors' description of the apparatus (sapphire/CNC machined Teflon/sapphire) it sounds like the geometry is well-known to them. Clarifying what is going on here (and perhaps supplying the source images for the machined Teflon) would be helpful.

    We understand. We will update the figures to better show dimensions of the experimental chamber. We will also add a more complete Figure in the supplementary information. Part of the complexity of the chamber however stems from the fact that the same chamber design has also been used to create defined temperature gradients which are not necessary and thus the chamber is much more complex than necessary.

    The data shown in Figure 2d nicely shows nonrandom residuals (for experimental values vs. simulated) that are most pronounced at t~12 m and t~40-60m. It seems like this is (1) because some symmetry-breaking occurs that isn't accounted for by the model, and perhaps (2) because of the fact that these data are n=1. I think discussing what's going on with (1) would greatly improve the paper, and performing additional replicates to address (2) would be very informative and enhance the paper. Perhaps the negative and positive residuals would change sign in some, but not all, additional replicates?

    To address this, we will show two more replicates of the experiment and include them in Figure 2.

    We are seeing two effects when we compare fluorescence measurements of the experiments.

    Firstly, degassing of water causes the formation of air-bubbles, which are then transported upwards to the interface, disrupting fluorescence measurements. This, however, mostly occurs in experiments with elevated temperatures for PCR reactions, such as displayed in Figure 4.

    Secondly, due to the high surface tension of water, the interface is quite flexible. As the inflow and evaporation work to balance each other, the shape of the interface adjusts, leading to alterations in the circular flow fields below.

    Thus the conditions, while overall being in steady state, show some fluctuations. The strong dependence on interface shape is also seen in the simulation. However, modeling a dynamic interface shape is not so easy to accomplish, so we had to stick to one geometry setting. Again here, the added movies of two more experiments should clarify this issue.

    The authors will most likely be familiar with the work of Victor Ugaz and colleagues, in which they demonstrated Rayleigh-Bénard-driven PCR in convection cells (10.1126/science.298.5594.793, 10.1002/anie.200700306). Not including some discussion of this work is an unfortunate oversight, and addressing it would significantly improve the manuscript and provide some valuable context to readers. Something of particular interest would be their observation that wide circular cells gave chaotic temperature profiles relative to narrow ones and that these improved PCR amplification (10.1002/anie.201004217). I think contextualizing the results shown here in light of this paper would be helpful.

    Thanks for pointing this out and reminding us. We apologize. We agree that the chaotic trajectories within Rayleigh-Bénard convection cells lead to temperature oscillations similar to the salt variations in our gas-flux system. Although the convection-driven PCR in Rayleigh-Bénard is not isothermal like our system, it provides a useful point of comparison and context for understanding environments that can support full replication cycles. We will add a section comparing approaches and giving some comparison into the history of convective PCR and how these relate to the new isothermal implementation.

    Again, it appears n=1 is shown for Figure 4a-c - the source of the title claim of the paper - and showing some replicates and perhaps discussing them in the context of prior work would enhance the manuscript.

    We appreciate the reviewer for bringing this to our attention. We will now include the two additional repeats for the data shown in Figure 4c, while the repeats of the PAGE measurements are already displayed in Supplementary Fig. IX.2. Initially, we chose not to show the repeats in Figure 4c due to the dynamic and variable nature of the system. These variations are primarily caused by differences at the water-air interface, attributed to the high surface tension of water. Additionally, the stochastic formation of air bubbles in the inflow—despite our best efforts to avoid them—led to fluctuations in the fluorescence measurements across experiments. These bubbles cause a significant drop in fluorescence in a region of interest (ROI) until the area is refilled with the sample.

    Unlike our RNA-focused experiments, PCR requires high temperatures and degassing a PCR master mix effectively is challenging in this context. While we believe our chamber design is sufficiently gas-tight to prevent air from diffusing in, the high surface-to-volume ratio in microfluidics makes degassing highly effective, particularly at elevated temperatures. We anticipate that switching to RNA experiments at lower temperatures will mitigate this issue, which is also relevant in a prebiotic context.

    The reviewer’s comments are valid and prompt us to fully display these aspects of the system. We will now include these repeats in Figure 4c to give readers a deeper understanding of the experiment's dynamics. Additionally, we will provide videos of all three repeats, allowing readers to better grasp the nature of the fluctuations in SYBR Green fluorescence depicted in Figure 4c.

    I think some caution is warranted in interpreting the PCR results because a primer-dimer would be of essentially the same length as the product. It appears as though the experiment has worked as described, but it's very difficult to be certain of this given this limitation. Doing the PCR with a significantly longer amplicon would be ideal, or alternately discussing this possible limitation would be helpful to the readers in managing expectations.

    This is a good point and should be discussed more in the manuscript. Our gel electrophoresis is capable of distinguishing between replicate and primer dimers. We know this since we were optimizing the primers and template sequences to minimize primer dimers, making it distinguishable from the desired 61mer product. That said, all of the experiments performed without a template strand added did not show any band in the vicinity of the product band after 4h of reaction, in contrast to the experiments with template, presenting a strong argument against the presence of primer dimers.

    Reviewer #2 (Public review):

    Schwintek et al. investigated whether a geological setting of a rock pore with water inflow on one end and gas passing over the opening of the pore on the other end could create a non-equilibrium system that sustains nucleic acid reactions under mild conditions. The evaporation of water as the gas passes over it concentrates the solutes at the boundary of evaporation, while the gas flux induces momentum transfer that creates currents in the water that push the concentrated molecules back into the bulk solution. This leads to the creation of steady-state regions of differential salt and macromolecule concentrations that can be used to manipulate nucleic acids. First, the authors showed that fluorescent bead behavior in this system closely matched their fluid dynamic simulations. With that validation in hand, the authors next showed that fluorescently labeled DNA behaved according to their theory as well. Using these insights, the authors performed a FRET experiment that clearly demonstrated the hybridization of two DNA strands as they passed through the high Mg++ concentration zone, and, conversely, the dissociation of the strands as they passed through the low Mg++ concentration zone. This isothermal hybridization and dissociation of DNA strands allowed the authors to perform an isothermal DNA amplification using a DNA polymerase enzyme. Crucially, the isothermal DNA amplification required the presence of the gas flux and could not be recapitulated using a system that was at equilibrium. These experiments advance our understanding of the geological settings that could support nucleic acid reactions that were key to the origin of life.

    The presented data compellingly supports the conclusions made by the authors. To increase the relevance of the work for the origin of life field, the following experiments are suggested:

    (1) While the central premise of this work is that RNA degradation presents a risk for strand separation strategies relying on elevated temperatures, all of the work is performed using DNA as the nucleic acid model. I understand the convenience of using DNA, especially in the latter replication experiment, but I think that at least the FRET experiments could be performed using RNA instead of DNA.

    We understand the request only partially. The modification brought about by the two dye molecules in the FRET probe to be able to probe salt concentrations by melting is of course much larger than the change of the backbone from RNA to DNA. This was the reason why we rather used the much more stable DNA construct which is also manufactured at a lower cost and in much higher purity also with the modifications. But we think the melting temperature characteristics of RNA and DNA in this range is enough known that we can use DNA instead of RNA for probing the salt concentration in our flow cycling.

    Only at extreme conditions of pH and salt, RNA degradation through transesterification, especially under alkaline conditions is at least several orders of magnitude faster than spontaneous degradative mechanisms acting upon DNA [Li, Y., & Breaker, R. R. (1999). Kinetics of RNA degradation by specific base catalysis of transesterification involving the 2 ‘-hydroxyl group. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 121(23), 5364-5372.]. The work presented in this article is however focussed on hybridization dynamics of nucleic acids. Here, RNA and DNA share similar properties regarding the formation of double strands and their respective melting temperatures. While RNA has been shown to form more stable duplex structures exhibiting higher melting temperatures compared to DNA [Dimitrov, R. A., & Zuker, M. (2004). Prediction of hybridization and melting for double-stranded nucleic acids. Biophysical Journal, 87(1), 215-226.], the general impact of changes in salt, temperature and pH [Mariani, A., Bonfio, C., Johnson, C. M., & Sutherland, J. D. (2018). pH-Driven RNA strand separation under prebiotically plausible conditions. Biochemistry, 57(45), 6382-6386.] on respective melting temperatures follows the same trend for both nucleic acid types. Also the diffusive properties of RNA and DNA are very similar [Baaske, P., Weinert, F. M., Duhr, S., Lemke, K. H., Russell, M. J., & Braun, D. (2007). Extreme accumulation of nucleotides in simulated hydrothermal pore systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(22), 9346-9351.].

    Since this work is a proof of principle for the discussed environment being able to host nucleic acid replication, we aimed to avoid second order effects such as degradation by hydrolysis by using DNA as a proxy polymer. This enabled us to focus on the physical effects of the environment on local salt and nucleic acid concentration. The experiments performed with FRET are used to visualize local salt concentration changes and their impact on the melting temperature of dissolved nucleic acids. While performing these experiments with RNA would without doubt cover a broader application within the field of origin of life, we aimed at a step-by-step / proof of principle approach, especially since the environmental phenomena studied here have not been previously investigated in the OOL context. Incorporating RNA-related complexity into this system should however be addressed in future studies. This will likely require modifications to the experimental boundary conditions, such as adjusting pH, temperature, and salt concentration, to account for the greater duplex stability of RNA. For instance, lowering the pH would reduce the RNA melting temperature [Ianeselli, A., Atienza, M., Kudella, P. W., Gerland, U., Mast, C. B., & Braun, D. (2022). Water cycles in a Hadean CO2 atmosphere drive the evolution of long DNA. Nature Physics, 18(5), 579-585.].

    (2) Additionally, showing that RNA does not degrade under the conditions employed by the authors (I am particularly worried about the high Mg++ zones created by the flux) would further strengthen the already very strong and compelling work.

    Based on literature values for hydrolysis rates of RNA [Li, Y., & Breaker, R. R. (1999). Kinetics of RNA degradation by specific base catalysis of transesterification involving the 2 ‘-hydroxyl group. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 121(23), 5364-5372.], we estimate RNA to have a halflife of multiple months under the deployed conditions in the FRET experiment (High concentration zones contain <1mM of Mg2+). Additionally, dsRNA is multiple orders of magnitude more stable than ssRNA with regards to degradation through hydrolysis [Zhang, K., Hodge, J., Chatterjee, A., Moon, T. S., & Parker, K. M. (2021). Duplex structure of double-stranded RNA provides stability against hydrolysis relative to single-stranded RNA. Environmental Science & Technology, 55(12), 8045-8053.], improving RNA stability especially in zones of high FRET signal. Furthermore, at the neutral pH deployed in this work, RNA does not readily degrade. In previous work from our lab [Salditt, A., Karr, L., Salibi, E., Le Vay, K., Braun, D., & Mutschler, H. (2023). Ribozyme-mediated RNA synthesis and replication in a model Hadean microenvironment. Nature Communications, 14(1), 1495.], we showed that the lifetime of RNA under conditions reaching 40mM Mg2+ at the air-water interface at 45°C was sufficient to support ribozymatically mediated ligation reactions in experiments lasting multiple hours.

    With that in mind, gaining insight into the median Mg2+ concentration across multiple averaged nucleic acid trajectories in our system (see Fig. 3c&d) and numerically convoluting this with hydrolysis dynamics from literature would be highly valuable. We anticipate that longer residence times in trajectories distant from the interface will improve RNA stability compared to a system with uniformly high Mg2+ concentrations.

    (3) Finally, I am curious whether the authors have considered designing a simulation or experiment that uses the imidazole- or 2′,3′-cyclic phosphate-activated ribonucleotides. For instance, a fully paired RNA duplex and a fluorescently-labeled primer could be incubated in the presence of activated ribonucleotides +/- flux and subsequently analyzed by gel electrophoresis to determine how much primer extension has occurred. The reason for this suggestion is that, due to the slow kinetics of chemical primer extension, the reannealing of the fully complementary strands as they pass through the high Mg++ zone, which is required for primer extension, may outcompete the primer extension reaction. In the case of the DNA polymerase, the enzymatic catalysis likely outcompetes the reannealing, but this may not recapitulate the uncatalyzed chemical reaction.

    This is certainly on our to-do list. Our current focus is on templated ligation rather than templated polymerization and we are working hard to implement RNA-only enzyme-free ligation chain reaction, based on more optimized parameters for the templated ligation from 2’3’-cyclic phosphate activation that was just published [High-Fidelity RNA Copying via 2′,3′-Cyclic Phosphate Ligation, Adriana C. Serrão, Sreekar Wunnava, Avinash V. Dass, Lennard Ufer, Philipp Schwintek, Christof B. Mast, and Dieter Braun, JACS doi.org/10.1021/jacs.3c10813 (2024)]. But we first would try this at an air-water interface which was shown to work with RNA in a temperature gradient [Ribozyme-mediated RNA synthesis and replication in a model Hadean microenvironment, Annalena Salditt, Leonie Karr, Elia Salibi, Kristian Le Vay, Dieter Braun & Hannes Mutschler, Nature Communications doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37206-4 (2023)] before making the jump to the isothermal setting we describe here. So we can understand the question, but it was good practice also in the past to first get to know the setting with PCR, then jump to RNA.

    Reviewer #2 (Recommendations for the authors):

    (1) Could the authors comment on the likelihood of the geological environments where the water inflow velocity equals the evaporation velocity?

    This is an important point to mention in the manuscript, thank you for pointing that out. To produce a defined experiment, we were pushing the water out with a syringe pump, but regulated in a way that the evaporation was matching our flow rate. We imagine that a real system will self-regulate the inflow of the water column on the one hand side by a more complex geometry of the gas flow, matching the evaporation with the reflow of water automatically. The interface would either recede or move closer to the gas flux, depending on whether the inflow exceeds or falls short of the evaporation rate. As the interface moves closer, evaporation speeds up, while moving away slows it down. This dynamic process stabilizes the system, with surface tension ultimately fixing the interface in place.

    We have seen a bit of this dynamic already in the experiments, could however so far not yet find a good geometry within our 2-dimensional constant thickness geometry to make it work for a longer time. Very likely having a 3-dimensional reservoir of water with less frictional forces would be able to do this, but this would require a full redesign of a multi-thickness microfluidics. The more we think about it, the more we envisage to make the next implementation of the experiment with a real porous volcanic rock inside a humidity chamber that simulates a full 6h prebiotic day. But then we would lose the whole reproducibility of the experiment, but likely gain a way that recondensation of water by dew in a cold morning is refilling the water reservoirs in the rocks again. Sorry that I am regressing towards experiments in the future.

    (2) Could the authors speculate on using gases other than ambient air to provide the flux and possibly even chemical energy? For example, using carbonyl sulfide or vaporized methyl isocyanide could drive amino acid and nucleotide activation, respectively, at the gas-water interface.

    This is an interesting prospect for future work with this system. We thought also about introducing ammonia for pH control and possible reactions. We were amazed in the past that having CO2 instead of air had a profound impact on the replication and the strand separation [Water cycles in a Hadean CO2 atmosphere drive the evolution of long DNA, Alan Ianeselli, Miguel Atienza, Patrick Kudella, Ulrich Gerland, Christof Mast & Dieter Braun, Nature Physics doi.org/10.1038/s41567-022-01516-z (2022)]. So going more in this direction absolutely makes sense and as it acts mostly on the length-selectively accumulated molecules at the interface, only the selected molecules will be affected, which adds to the selection pressure of early evolutionary scenarios.

    Of course, in the manuscript, we use ambient air as a proxy for any gas, focusing primarily on the energy introduced through momentum transfer and evaporation. We speculate that soluble gasses could establish chemical gradients, such as pH or redox potential, from the bulk solution to the interface, similar to the Mg2+ accumulation shown in Figure 3c. The nature of these gradients would depend on each gas's solubility and diffusivity. We have already observed such effects in thermal gradients [Keil, L. M., Möller, F. M., Kieß, M., Kudella, P. W., & Mast, C. B. (2017). Proton gradients and pH oscillations emerge from heat flow at the microscale. Nature communications, 8(1), 1897.] and finding similar behavior in an isothermal environment would be a significant discovery.

    (3) Line 162: Instead of "risk," I suggest using "rate".

    Oh well - thanks for pointing this out! Will be changed.

    (4) Using FRET of a DNA duplex as an indicator of salt concentration is a decent proxy, but a more direct measurement of salt concentration would provide further merit to the explicit statement that it is the salt concentration that is changing in the system and not another hidden parameter.

    Directly observing salt concentration using microscopy is a difficult task. While there are dyes that change their fluorescence depending on the local Na+ or Mg2+ concentration, they are not operating differentially, i.e. by making a ratio between two color channels. Only then we are not running into artifacts from the dye molecules being accumulated by the non-equilibrium settings. We were able to do this for pH in the past, but did not find comparable optical salt sensors. This is the reason we ended up with a FRET pair, with the advantage that we actually probe the strand separation that we are interested in anyhow. Using such a dye in future work would however without a doubt enhance the understanding of not only this system, but also our thermal gradient environments.

    (5) Figure 3a: Could the authors add information on "Dried DNA" to the caption? I am assuming this is the DNA that dried off on the sides of the vessel but cannot be sure.

    Thanks to the reviewer for pointing this out. This is correct and we will describe this better in the revised manuscript.

    (6) Figure 4b and c: How reproducible is this data? Have the authors performed this reaction multiple independent times? If so, this data should be added to the manuscript.

    The data from the gel electrophoresis was performed in triplicates and is shown in full in supplementary information. The data in c is hard to reproduce, as the interface is not static and thus ROI measurements are difficult to perform as an average of repeats. Including the data from the independent repeats will however give the reader insight into some of the experimental difficulties, such as air bubbles, which form from degassing as the liquid heats up, that travel upwards to the interface, disrupting the ongoing fluorescence measurements.

    (7) Line 256: "shielding from harmful UV" statement only applies to RNA oligomers as UV light may actually be beneficial for earlier steps during ribonucleoside synthesis. I suggest rephrasing to "shielding nucleic acid oligomers from UV damage.".

    Will be adjusted as mentioned.

    (8) The final paragraph in the Results and Discussion section would flow better if placed in the Conclusion section.

    This is a good point and we will merge results and discussion closer together.

    (9) Line 262, "...of early Life" is slightly overstating the conclusions of the study. I suggest rephrasing to "...of nucleic acids that could have supported early life."

    This is a fair comment. We thank the reviewer for his detailed analysis of the manuscript!

    (10) In references, some of the journal names are in sentence case while others are in title case (see references 23 and 26 for example).

    Thanks - this will be fixed.

  8. Version published to 10.1101/2024.06.13.598889v1 on bioRxiv