Violence Across the Lifespan and its Association with Depression: Cumulative Effects and Psychosocial Moderation in the UK Biobank

Violence exposure is a well-established risk factor for depression, yet few large-scale studies have examined how distinct violence types across the lifespan interact to shape mental health trajectories or how psychosocial factors may moderate these effects. Drawing on data from 36,378 UK Biobank participants, this study investigated associations between childhood violence, lifetime violence, and intimate partner violence (IPV) and both depressive symptom severity in the general population and clinical depression diagnosis. We further tested whether socioeconomic status (SES), social support, and loneliness modified these associations. All violence exposures were independently associated with greater depression severity and higher odds of depression diagnosis. Cumulative exposure demonstrated additive, synergistic, and nonlinear effects, with co-occurring violence types compounding psychological risk. Loneliness significantly amplified the association between violence exposure and depression severity. In contrast, social support exerted a protective effect, buffering the psychological consequences of violence. SES showed a small independent association but did not significantly moderate violence-depression relationships. Prospective analyses confirmed that violence exposure predicted future depressive symptoms even after controlling for initial depression severity, underscoring the enduring psychological burden of violence-related experiences. In case-control analyses of clinical depression, IPV contributed the highest population attributable fraction (2.1%), followed by lifetime violence (0.9%) and childhood violence (0.6%). These findings highlight the need for integrated violence screening and targeted psychosocial interventions within mental health and public health strategies. Depression risk following violence is shaped not only by exposure but also by modifiable psychosocial factors, with loneliness and social support emerging as critical intervention targets.