Time Perception in Virtual Reality: Effects of Emotional Valence and Stress Level

Immersive virtual reality (VR) enables controlled tests of how emotional context distorts subjective time, yet findings remain mixed. Fifty-seven adults explored three five-minute VR environments (tranquil garden, neutral room, threatening sewer) while eye tracking recorded pupil diameter. Baseline stress was assessed before VR exposure. After each environment, participants estimated elapsed time and rated mood, calmness, and arousal. Repeated-measures ANCOVA (baseline stress as covariate) and linear mixed-effects models converged on a valence gradient: garden intervals were overestimated, sewer intervals underestimated, and neutral estimates were intermediate. Pupil diameter showed the complementary pattern (sewer > garden > neutral) and covaried with the magnitude of temporal distortion. Baseline stress did not predict time estimates and did not moderate valence effects. Results indicate that affectively distinct VR contexts reliably shift perceived time and elicit convergent physiological and self-report responses. These findings inform emotion-aware design of immersive experiences and digital-wellbeing safeguards that support safe, sustained immersion.