Cattle production systems characteristics and their influence on antimicrobial use, alternatives, and resistance in Nigeria

Background Nigerian cattle production ranks 6th in Africa and 16th globally, constituting an important livelihood for many of its population. However, several health challenges affect the productivity of cattle herds, influencing antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In this study, we attempt to characterise the cattle production system and its influence on health management practices. We also examined factors influencing farmers’ use of antimicrobials and antimicrobial alternatives (vaccines, ethnoveterinary remedies, etc.) A mixed-methods approach, comprising semi-structured questionnaires (n = 736) and stakeholder focus group discussions, was employed. Results The majority of cattle production (78%) is extensive, with a median of 50 cattle per herd. Diseases of major burden are mastitis, gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases. Animal health was predominantly self-managed by farmers rather than using government or private veterinary services. Less than 5% of farmers regularly vaccinate their herds. Farmers reported difficulties accessing effective vaccines and largely relied on government veterinarians for immunisation services. Para-veterinarians are regularly consulted for treatment due to a reported unavailability of licensed veterinarians. More farmers used antibiotics (51%) than ethnoveterinary remedies (27%) within the last three months. Farmers stated they used herbs for diseases with limited effective antimicrobial options, such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP). 53% of farmers never used ethnoveterinary remedies primarily due to low awareness and difficulty in procuring herbs. Farmers also indicated that they were beginning to lose ethnoveterinary knowledge previously passed down from older generations due to an increasing dependence on antimicrobials. Farmers have poor knowledge and attitudes regarding the impact of AMU in cattle and the risk of AMR. Conclusions Future research should focus on identifying and preserving ethnoveterinary knowledge through culturally appropriate means. Efforts should be made to assess the efficacy of available herbs. Access to governmental veterinary services, agricultural extension agents, and vaccines should be improved for farmers. Finally, available legislation surrounding AMU should be implemented more rigorously, and antibiotic sales by unlicensed drugstores must be strictly regulated.