Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants of Kulbo Forest, Ethiopia: cross-regional comparison and conservation implications

Background Ethnoveterinary medicine is still the primary livestock healthcare system for forest-dependent communities in southwest Ethiopia, where access to modern veterinary services is limited. Although numerous ethnoveterinary studies have been conducted in Ethiopia, most remain largely descriptive, with limited hypothesis testing, cross-regional comparison, and conservation integration. Kulbo Forest, a moist Afromontane ecosystem in Maji District inhabited mainly by Dizi communities, has not previously been studied from an ethnoveterinary perspective. Methods From March to October 2024, ethnoveterinary knowledge was documented using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and guided field walks with 138 informants across four settlements (Chayit, Kerisi, Chigit, and Kubit). Three hypotheses were tested: (H₁) high cultural consensus exists for life-threatening livestock diseases; (H₂) plant-use patterns in moist Afromontane forests differ from those reported in drier Ethiopian agro-pastoral regions; and (H₃) ethnoveterinary knowledge is higher among elders than younger generations. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices (ICF, FL, UV, and RI) were calculated. Voucher specimens (MTU-EVP-001 to MTU-EVP-042) were deposited at the Mizan-Tepi University Herbarium. Results A total of 42 medicinal plant species belonging to 27 botanical families were recorded for the treatment of 31 livestock ailments. Diseases with the highest informant consensus were rabies (ICF = 0.89), babesiosis (ICF = 0.86), and wound infections (ICF = 0.83). Three species exhibited the highest ethnoveterinary significance, with fidelity levels ≥ 75% and use values ≥ 0.59: Asparagus africanus (FL = 82%, UV = 0.61), Calpurnia aurea (FL = 75%, UV = 0.59), and Croton macrostachyus (FL = 77%, UV = 0.60). Three ethnoveterinary applications are newly reported for Ethiopia. Ethnoveterinary knowledge was significantly higher among elders (p < 0.05). Twenty-nine species (68%) were harvested from wild forest habitats. Conclusions Ethnoveterinary knowledge in Kulbo Forest is culturally coherent and ecologically adapted but increasingly threatened by deforestation and declining knowledge transmission. Integrating validated traditional remedies into community-based animal health services and prioritizing conservation of key medicinal species are recommended.