Ethnobotanical Knowledge in the Primbon Padukunan Manuscripts: A Historical Ethnobotany from the Merapi–Merbabu Region, Indonesia

Background Traditional medical knowledge preserved in manuscript sources represents an important yet underexplored domain within ethnobotanical research. The Primbon Padukunan, originating from the Merapi–Merbabu scriptorium, constitutes a significant textual repository documenting indigenous therapeutic knowledge that integrates material and immaterial healing practices within a culturally embedded medical system. Methods This study employs a manuscript-based ethnobotanical approach through close textual analysis of the Primbon Padukunan. Medicinal formulations, ingredients, therapeutic methods, and disease categories were systematically identified, classified, and quantified. Identifiable biological materials were analyzed taxonomically, while healing practices were categorized according to their reliance on tangible ( sakala ) and intangible components, including incantations (mantra) and talismanic diagrams ( rajah ). Diseases were further classified according to affected subject groups and etiological frameworks. Results The Primbon Padukunan documents 119 medicinal formulations that employ tangible ( sakala ) materials, including plants, animals, and other substances. A total of 126 medicinal ingredients are recorded, of which 109 are identifiable, comprising 105 plant species, two animal-derived materials, and two non-biological substances, namely water and salt. In addition to material-based therapies, 66 combined formulations integrate tangible components with immaterial elements in the form of incantations (mantra) and talismanic diagrams (rajah). Therapeutic practices relying exclusively on immaterial means include 27 treatments using incantations alone and 31 treatments using rajah alone. The manuscript records 84 types of illnesses affecting four subject clusters: adults, pregnant women, children, and general ailments. These illnesses encompass both naturalistic and personalistic conditions, including external, internal, and psychological disorders. Conclusions The Primbon Padukunan reveals a complex and integrative medical system in which ethnobotanical knowledge is embedded within broader cosmological and symbolic frameworks. The coexistence of material and immaterial therapies demonstrates that plants and other substances are not positioned merely as pharmacological agents, but as components of a holistic healing system. This study underscores the value of manuscript-based ethnobotany in reconstructing historical medical knowledge and contributes to broader discussions on the cultural dimensions of traditional medicine and the decolonization of ethnobotanical research.