Translational Nanotechnology in Oncology: Integrating Nanoscale Innovation into Precision Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

Complexity, heterogeneity, and therapeutic resistance continue to make cancer one of the most challenging diseases to diagnose and treat. Despite substantial advances in molecular biology and immuno-oncology, persistent limitations in early detection, targeted delivery, and therapeutic precision continue to impede effective management. Over the past two decades, nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative frontier, offering innovative strategies for cancer diagnostics and treatment. Engineered nanomaterials—encompassing liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, quantum dots, and metallic nanostructures—enable precise tumor targeting, enhanced imaging resolution, and controlled therapeutic release.In diagnostics, nanoscale biosensors and imaging probes have markedly improved the sensitivity and specificity of biomarker detection and visualization. In therapeutics, nanocarriers have demonstrated the capacity to minimize systemic toxicity and optimize pharmacokinetics, thereby improving clinical efficacy. Recent developments, including smart and stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms, nanorobotics, and integrated theranostic systems, are redefining the landscape of personalized cancer care. Nonetheless, critical translational challenges remain, particularly regarding large-scale manufacturing, long-term biosafety, and regulatory validation.This review critically examines the evolution of nanotechnology in oncology, synthesizing advances in nanodiagnostics and nanotherapeutics, assessing current clinical progress, and outlining future directions toward achieving precision nanomedicine in cancer diagnosis and therapy.