Mapping the Barriers to Smart Mobility adoption: A Multi-Criteria Analysis Using TISM-MICMAC

Smart mobility is widely promoted as a solution to the urban challenges of congestion, pollution, and inefficient transportation systems. Yet, its adoption remains inconsistent, particularly in developing cities where structural and systemic barriers are dominant. Prior research has examined enabling factors such as digital infrastructure and user perceptions, but has paid limited attention to the institutional, political, and socio-cultural constraints that influence adoption. Moreover, whenever considered, the barriers are studied in isolation, obscuring their systemic interactions. This study addresses this gap using Total Interpretive Structural Modelling (TISM) to hierarchically map the barriers. To complement the analysis, MICMAC classification is used to assess their driving and dependence power. Findings reveal that legacy paradigms in conventional transport planning, fragmented institutional mandates, and regulatory misalignment are the foundational barriers, reinforcing downstream challenges such as affordability constraints, limited service coverage, and persistent car-centric preferences. Anchored in Critical Urban Theory, the study depicts how smart mobility adoption is not a neutral technological process, but one deeply embedded in wider struggles over governance, equity, and urban development. The paper contributes to the literature by offering a theory-building framework that captures the interdependence of institutional, technological, and behavioral barriers. It also provides practical entry points for policymakers, planners, and mobility innovators seeking to target root cause interventions rather than symptoms, thereby enabling more equitable, scalable, and resilient smart mobility transitions.