Forest Landscape Transformation and Rural Development: A Socio-Economic Analysis of Rubber (<em>Hevea brasiliensis</em>) Expansion in Colombia and Southeast Asia

Natural rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) cultivation is expanding across tropical regions, often replacing forest ecosystems with plantation landscapes. This study analyzes the socio-economic and ecological trade-offs of rubber expansion in post-forest frontiers, using comparative case studies from Jambi Province (Indonesia) and the departments of Caquet&aacute; and Tolima (Colombia). Results reveal that while rubber supports rural economies and diversification, it also contributes to significant carbon losses, biodiversity decline, and increased climate vulnerability. In both contexts, fragmented governance, low productivity, and selective exposure to success narratives limit the long-term sustainability of expansion. The study argues that landscape-level planning, climate adaptation, and stronger extension systems are essential to embed rubber cultivation within more resilient and ecologically responsible rural development strategies.