Beyond Education: Self-Efficacy, LMX, and Gendered Leadership Pathways

This study examines gendered disparities in leadership across four Eastern European countries—Romania, Poland, Hungary, and Bulgaria—using panel data from 2019 to 2023. Grounded in theories of self-efficacy, leader-member exchange (LMX), and organizational behavior, we develop a proxy-based framework to operationalize these constructs at the structural level. Self-efficacy is measured by female representation in senior management and ministerial roles; LMX is inferred from part-time work rates and employment gaps related to childcare; and organizational behavior is captured through the alignment of education and leadership attainment. Using OLS regression, we assess country and indicator-level differences and time trends. Results show significant underperformance in Hungary and Romania compared to Bulgaria, particularly in executive leadership. Parliamentary roles exhibit the highest female representation, while ministerial positions remain the most resistant to gender parity. Findings suggest that educational gains are not translating into leadership equity, and that systemic labor structures continue to hinder women’s advancement. The study contributes to understanding how macro-level constraints reflect and reinforce psychological and relational barriers to leadership.