Reptilian hunchbacks: a systematic review and meta-analysis of spinal deformities in wild reptiles

Deformities of the spinal column—such as kyphosis, scoliosis, lordosis, and their various combinations—are known to affect all major vertebrate taxa. In reptiles, these deformities are relatively common in captivity, but reports from wild populations are also frequent. Since the 2000s, the number of published cases and affected species has increased considerably. However, most observations still appear as natural history notes or brief reports, often treating spinal deformities as mere curiosities without examining their aetiology, pathology, or prevalence. As a result, we know virtually nothing about the potential ecological impacts of spinal deformities on the life history of affected individuals or populations. Here, based on a systematic review of peer-reviewed and grey literature, complemented by unpublished observations gathered through standardized social media inquiries, I present the most comprehensive database and review of spinal deformities in wild reptiles to date. I identified 351 observations from 139 sources, covering 103 species across 24 families and 35 countries. Unpublished observations accounted for 13.3% of the database. Spinal deformities appear across all major reptile clades, though Testudines are clearly overrepresented (59.8%), likely due to their greater popularity, visibility, and research attention compared to other groups. Prevalence data were available or could be extracted from 51 records (36 species). A phylogenetic meta-analysis revealed a global prevalence effect size of 0.23%. However, no significant effects of phylogeny, habitat use strategy, or habitat type were detected—though this may reflect limitations of the dataset. Kyphosis appeared more frequently in (semi)aquatic Testudines than in primarily terrestrial squamates, whereas the opposite pattern was observed for scoliosis. Nonetheless, the underrepresentation of (semi)aquatic squamate taxa in the dataset urges caution when interpreting these phylogenetic inferences. Spinal deformities may substantially impact key life-history traits such as survival, growth, and reproduction, but direct evidence remains scarce and mostly anecdotal. To enhance ecological relevance, future studies should adopt more detailed and standardized reporting— incorporating occurrence frequency, habitat characteristics, morphometrics, imaging data, and assessments of behavioural or locomotor limitations.