Phylogenomics resolves the relationship and the evolutionary history of planthoppers (Insecta: Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha)

Planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha) are a species-rich and globally distributed insect clade with high economic, ecological, and evolutionary importance. However, the relationships among planthopper lineages and families remain unclear. Previous efforts based on inconsistent morphological traits, a few genes, or limited sampling often resulted in conflicting tree topologies. Here, we used genome-level data to assemble 1164 nuclear single-copy genes and 13 mitochondrial protein-coding genes for 149 planthopper species representing 19 out of 21 extant families. Additional markers were added from published mitogenomes, expanding our sampling to 285 species. These markers were used for Maximum Likelihood-based tree inference and dating analyses. The newly inferred phylogenies validated well-accepted relationships and recovered novel placements. Taxonomic conclusions include the establishment of a new family Borysthenidae stat. rev. within Delphacoidea and a new superfamily Meenoploidea superfam. nov. including redefined Kinnaridae stat. rev. and Meenoplidae stat. rev. , the confirmation of the monophyletic family Achilixiidae outside the Achilidae-Derbidae clade, and the transfer of tribes Lyncidini and Amyclini to Dictyopharidae and the genus Madagascaritia to Fulgoridae. The time analyses based on 57 nuclear markers and 30 fossils dated the origin of crown Fulgoromorpha back to Guadalupian, Permian (∼263 Ma), close to the maximum constraint at 267.3 Ma, while applying an older root constraint resulted in an origin in Mississippian, Carboniferous (∼332 Ma). While future sampling of unstudied fauna in unexplored regions or habitats may change the topology, the current phylogenomic analysis will serve as a solid foundation for research into planthopper ecology, evolution, and significance.