Primary sex determination in birds depends on DMRT1 dosage, but gonadal sex does not determine adult secondary sex characteristics

Here, we show that DMRT1 dosage is the key sex determination factor in birds and is essential for testis development. Furthermore, we provide additional evidence that birds, in contrast to mammals, have acquired cell-autonomous sex identity (CASI) and that the sex hormone environment does not significantly influence avian secondary sexual characteristics. This finding highlights an evolutionary divide between mammals and nonmammalian vertebrates. In mammals, the sex chromosomes determine the type of gonad formed, and sex hormones largely define the secondary sexual phenotype. In birds, the sexual phenotype is directly determined by the sex chromosome content of individual cells in different tissues. Our findings help advance our understanding of the evolution of sex determination systems and the nature of sex identity.