Interactive effects of land use change and climate drive the decline of a threatened boreal forest orchid in Finland

Land use and climate change are two of the greatest threats to biodiversity globally. However, their interactive effects remain poorly understood. In the boreal forest biome, where species are experiencing increasing pressures from forest management and climate change, improved understanding of these effects is urgently needed. Here, we assess the impacts of forest loss and both baseline and changing late spring climatic conditions on the extinction probability of a threatened boreal forest orchid, Calypso bulbosa . We use a unique dataset consisting of 1,006 C. bulbosa occurrence sites located in Finland, historical aerial images, and climatic data spanning the last 60 years. Our results reveal that forest loss, at the local rather than landscape-scale, and both the site-specific baseline climatic conditions and their change over time influence the extinction probability of C. bulbosa. These effects were mainly interactive with greater temporal increase in rainfall ameliorating and greater baseline rainfall exacerbating the negative effect of forest loss on the species’ persistence. Furthermore, greater baseline snow depth ameliorated this negative effect. We also found some statistical support for independent effects of baseline thermal sum and its change over time, but their ecological relevance was interpreted as minor. Overall, our results align with the expectation that forest loss can modify the exposure of forest-dependent species to climatic conditions, thus altering their vulnerability to climate change.