Acoustic Monitoring of Tropical Bats: Saccopteryx bilineata’s response to habitat and time across a restoration gradient using a 2D-CNN

Global biodiversity loss is a consequence of habitat degradation and fragmentation caused by the expansion of the Anthropocene and the overexploitation of natural resources. Passive acoustic monitoring enables longitudinal assessment of biodiversity but generates massive datasets. Advancements in machine learning have enabled the development of convolutional neural networks capable of automating this process. We developed a lightweight 2D convolutional neural network capable of detecting echolocation calls of the greater sac-winged bat, Saccopteryx bilineata , an insectivorous aerial edge-foraging bat, across a tropical restoration gradient in Pará, Brazil. The 2D-CNN model achieved a 97.84% accuracy and 100% precision. Deploying this model across 157,335 field recordings across 29 sampling points resampled over 3 years (2023-2025) yielded 2,098 positive detections of S. bilineata . Generalised linear mixed models revealed that time since reforestation significantly increased the odds of detecting S. bilineata (β = 0.22, p < 0.001), and that detection probability was 2.14 times higher in restoration plots than in forest habitats (β = 0.76, p = 0.0701). Acoustic hardware had a significant covariate influence in both fitted models (β = 0.52, β = 0.72, both p < 0.001). These findings demonstrate the practical applications of deep learning and bioacoustics to quantify habitat recovery and the value of restoration in regenerating functional ecological niches for aerial insectivores during early successional stages.