Exposure to a mixture of long-chain per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) disrupts ovarian follicle development, ovulation, and luteinization in female mice

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent environmental contaminants associated with adverse female reproductive outcomes. However, most prior studies examined individual PFAS, despite that humans are exposed to complex PFAS mixtures. Here, we investigated the ovarian effects of a mixture of five commonly detected long-chain PFAS, including PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, and PFHxS, using complementary in vivo mouse and in vitro 3D ovarian follicle culture models. Young adult female mice were exposed to a range of concentrations of the PFAS mixture (PFASmix) through daily drinking water for 8 weeks. PFASmix at high yet environmentally relevant concentrations (PFASmix-high) disrupted mouse estrous cyclicity, decreased circulating estradiol, increased testosterone, and promoted follicular atresia. Antral follicles from exposed mice showed decreased Lhcgr and increased Amh expression. Although the number of ovulated oocytes was unchanged following superovulation, PFASmix-high reduced oocyte size and polar body extrusion and altered oocyte cytoskeletal characteristics. In a 3D mouse ovarian follicle culture model, direct PFASmix exposure impaired follicle growth, ovulation, and oocyte maturation in a concentration-dependent manner. PFASmix-high suppressed the periovulatory expression of Areg, Ereg, Tnfaip6, and Adamts1 and impaired corpus luteal (CL) development and function, as evidenced by reduced CL spheroid growth and cell survival, decreased expression of Star, Cyp11a1, Hsd3b1, and Lhcgr , and reduced progesterone secretion. PFASmix-high exposure additionally altered the expression of multiple PPARγ-associated genes in cultured ovarian follicles. Benchmark dose modeling identified estrous cyclicity and follicle rupture as sensitive in vivo and in vitro endpoints, respectively. Together, these findings demonstrate that exposure to the mixture of long-chain PFAS disrupts multiple stages of ovarian function, from follicular development, oocyte maturation to ovulation and luteal function, providing mechanistic and quantitative evidence for the reproductive toxicity of PFAS mixtures.