To slide or not to slide, that is the question: evaluating dense semilandmarks and sliding in 3D geometric morphometrics with real and simulated data

Dense semilandmarks describe 3D surfaces with hundreds to thousands of points, and sliding them by bending energy or Procrustes distance is a near- universal default. Three questions remain open: does dense sampling add shape beyond fixed landmarks, how many points are needed, and does sliding help or harm? Real specimens cannot answer them: the true correspondence is unknown. We tested two workflows, ALPACA (single- template registration) and DeCAL (landmark-anchored correspondence), on 496 mouse skulls at 250–1,000 points, with and without sliding, scored by surface reconstruction. We repeated it on 500 synthetic skulls with exact correspondence, measuring each point’s distance to its true homologue.

Dense semilandmarks lowered error for almost every specimen; the fixed landmarks added little but supplied anchoring the semilandmarks could not, and the anchored method was more accurate. The benefit saturated near 250 points for ALPACA but kept improving to 1,000 for DeCAL. Procrustes- distance sliding harmed every configuration; bending-energy sliding helped only a poor, landmark-free correspondence, vanishing once anatomical anchors spanned the form. Match the sliding decision to the correspondence in hand: relax a poor one, leave a good one alone, never slide toward the mean. Known-correspondence specimens offer a general test of landmarking and sliding against ground truth.