Population-based urinary pesticide biomonitoring in rural Wisconsin: Longitudinal patterns and determinants of glyphosate, AMPA, and 2,4-D, and other modern use pesticides
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Background
Population-based biomonitoring of contemporary-use pesticides remains limited in the United States, particularly in rural agricultural regions, and few studies have repeated measurements within the same individuals over time.
Methods
We analyzed 28 urinary pesticide-related biomarkers among 600 adults from the population-based Survey of the Health of Wisconsin with archived urine collected during 2008–2016; 296 participants provided repeat urine and updated exposure information in 2025. Detection frequencies, co-detection, and within-person detection patterns were characterized. Generalized estimating equations were used for stacked, repeated-measures analyses of factors associated with detection of aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA), glyphosate, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), and any of these three. Prospective-only analyses evaluated more detailed agricultural and recent exposure measures.
Results
Glyphosate, AMPA, and 2,4-D were detected in 7.7%, 6.2%, and 4.3% of retrospective specimens and 5.4%, 3.1%, and 4.1% of prospective specimens, respectively. Co-detection and persistent detection across the 9–17-year interval was rare. In repeated-measures models, greater fruit and vegetable intake, older age, and male sex were associated with higher 2,4-D detection. Lower household income was associated with lower AMPA detection, while afternoon/evening collection was associated with higher AMPA detection. In prospective analyses, working on field-crop agricultural land showed the strongest agricultural associations, particularly for 2,4-D and detection of any of the three pesticides. Associations were not seen with self-reported conventional versus organic produce consumption.
Conclusions
Urinary pesticide detections were generally infrequent in this Wisconsin population. Diet and direct agricultural activities may be more informative exposure pathways than residing near cropland or private well drinking-water characteristics.
