Shared phylogeographic structuring and recurrent hybridization underlie the diversification of Microhyla frog complexes in the Indochinese biodiversity hotspot

Comparative phylogeography provides a powerful framework to identify the historical processes shaping biodiversity hotspots by testing whether co-distributed species exhibit shared patterns of diversification. Southeast Asia harbors exceptional biodiversity, yet the extent to which common paleogeographic and climatic drivers have structured diversification across taxa remains poorly understood. Here, we investigated the evolutionary history of five widespread Microhyla species complexes distributed across the Indochinese Peninsula and adjacent regions using dense mitochondrial sampling (1,388 individuals) combined with genome-scale ddRAD sequencing (280 individuals). Across all complexes, both approaches recovered multiple lineages and remarkably congruent phylogeographic breaks and contact/intergradation zones associated with major Indochinese regions, including Myanmar, the Tenasserim-Malay Peninsula, southern Vietnam, and northern Vietnam-southern China, supporting the hypothesis that Indochina functions as a mosaic of stable biogeographic units. However, lineage divergence varied substantially among complexes, suggesting that common biogeographic drivers interacted with species-specific demographic histories. Phylogenomic analyses and cyto-nuclear discordance further revealed historical introgression in every complex, indicating that diversification involved both long-term allopatric isolation and reticulate evolution. These findings portray the Indochinese biodiversity hotspot as a dynamic evolutionary system where cycles of fragmentation and reconnection have repeatedly reshaped lineage boundaries. Moreover, the complex phylogeographic structure recovered exemplifies the urgent need for taxonomic revisions, for which genome-scale data provide an essential framework to validate mitochondrial hypotheses and assess admixture patterns for species delimitation. Finally, regions such as the southern Annamites and Tenasserim Hills emerged as recurrent hotspots of genetic diversity across independent lineages, highlighting their importance for conserving not only species/lineage richness but also the evolutionary processes and adaptive potential that sustain biodiversity.