Engineering an Enzymatically Active Granular Matrix for On-Chip Modeling of Bone-Like Mineralization

Controlled biomineralization is central to engineering physiologically relevant hard-tissue models, yet achieving spatially organized, three-dimensional (3D) mineral deposition in microfluidic on-chip systems remains challenging. While cell-based bone-on-chip platforms offer biological complexity, they intrinsically couple mineral initiation to confounding factors such as matrix remodeling and paracrine signaling, obscuring the earliest biochemical drivers of nucleation. Drawing inspiration from bottom-up synthetic biology, we engineered an enzymatically active granular matrix that recapitulates a key osteogenic function within a perfusable 3D microenvironment. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), the key driver of native bone formation, was covalently conjugated to poly(ethylene glycol)-based (PEG) microgels via thiol–ene photochemistry, retaining over 90% enzymatic activity after 48 h. These monodisperse microgels were assembled into a jammed, perfusable matrix within an on-chip chamber, enabling independent control over enzyme loading and substrate delivery. The system supported rapid in situ mineralization (24–48 h), yielding a carbonated, calcium-deficient, apatite-like phase characteristic of early-stage bone mineral. We demonstrate that the spatial 3D localization of enzymatic activity to discrete microscale compartments, coupled with interstitial perfusion, enables localized and near-physiological mineral formation. This mechanistically defined, acellular platform provides a programmable foundation for investigating ALP-driven 3D mineralization and establishes a modular route toward hybrid biosynthetic models of (patho)physiological tissue mineralization.