Towards genetic indicators in ectomycorrhizal fungi: estimating the effective population size

Ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi are vital to forest ecosystems, supporting tree growth and survival. However, their inclusion in conservation policy and action remains limited and little is known about the status of their genetic diversity, which is essential for their long-term survival and adaptation. The Global Biodiversity Framework adopted a genetic indicator based on the effective population size, N _e , to monitor genetic diversity in all species. To date, it is still uncertain how N _e , a key parameter, can be reliably assessed in species with complex life history traits. Ectomycorrhizal fungi are a highly diverse group of taxa displaying haplodiplontic life cycles with partially clonal reproduction. Here, we review the literature to understand how these life history traits might affect N _e and its estimation in six species of EM fungi. We estimated N _e in 19 populations using eight genetic and genomic datasets from selected studies. We compared N _e estimates using Linkage Disequilibrium (LD) and Sibship Frequency (SF) methods. We tested how N _e estimates change due to partial clonality and genetic structure gradients and whether the number of genetic markers influence the precision of the estimates. We show a systematic bias in N _e estimations when large clones are present and when populations are not correctly delimited. We found both methods are not robust to these factors, which makes them unreliable for conservation assessment purposes in EM fungi. This study provides new perspectives for further research into the links between life history traits and the effective population size of ectomycorrhizal fungi.