Ecological axes of skull diversification in a massive vertebrate radiation

Eupercarian spiny-rayed fishes are one of the largest vertebrate radiations, rivaling mammals and occupying nearly every aquatic habitat. We present a densely sampled, time-calibrated phylogenomic framework for Eupercaria, supporting a revised classification, combined with the largest cranial phenomics dataset for fishes. Habitat and trophic ecology make independent, complementary contributions to skull shape. Most species cluster around a conserved generalized architecture, the Percomorph Pile, from which one clade of pufferfishes, anglerfishes, butterflyfishes, and surgeonfishes repeatedly invaded novel morphospace; exceptionally high rates on its deep branches indicate that rapid skull evolution arose early in this clade. Freshwater lineages converge on the ancestral condition, reflecting late arrival into systems occupied by older otophysans, whereas durophages show the greatest disparity and converge on derived forms. Cranial diversity was partitioned among subclades during the Cretaceous and later within them across the Cenozoic, showing that clade-level differences in evolutionary rates and ecological opportunity jointly shaped skull diversification.