Ecosystem services and livelihood pathways: The nexus between biodiversity governance and environmental justice in rural Eastern Cape, South Africa

Mountain ecosystems in sub-Saharan Africa provide critical services such as water regulation, soil fertility, and biodiversity conservation, yet they face increasing vulnerability from climate variability and weak governance. This study examined how climate change, governance structures, and environmental justice intersect to shape community resilience in South Africa’s Amathole Mountains, focusing on the communities of Hopefield, Bold Point, and Hogsback. Using a qualitative approach, we conducted semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews with rural households and tourism stakeholders to capture diverse perspectives. Findings reveal that erratic rainfall, declining soil fertility and reduced water access are reshaping livelihood pathways and intensifying food and income insecurity. Governance shortcomings, including limited institutional capacity, weak extension support, and exclusion from adaptation planning, further constrain equitable access to ecosystem services, deepening environmental injustices. Despite these challenges, communities employ indigenous practices, informal knowledge-sharing, and small-scale conservation initiatives to sustain resilience. We argue that ecosystem-based, participatory governance rooted in local knowledge and attentive to differentiated livelihood pathways is essential for biodiversity conservation, rural well-being, and climate adaptation in mountain socio-ecological systems. Insights from this study contribute to broader debates on sustainable governance and environmental justice in climate-vulnerable highland regions across Africa.