Immersive technology in language education: a bibliometric analysis from 2014 to 2024

Immersive technology, primarily virtual reality and augmented reality, is becoming increasingly influential in language education, yet the field still lacks a comprehensive, system-level mapping of its intellectual structure and research evolution. Using CiteSpace, with analyses of collaboration networks, keyword co-occurrence and bursts, and reference co-citation structures, this study conducts a bibliometric review of immersive-technology-assisted language learning (ITALL) from January 2014 to October 2024 drawn from 504 publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection. Results indicate rapid growth after 2019, with Asia, especially China and South Korea, emerging as a major hub of research activity. Thematic evolution shows a shift from game-based emphases toward experience-oriented and embodied learning, with prominent topics including vocabulary learning, spherical video-based VR-supported writing, AR storybooks, and virtual reality exposure approaches to public speaking anxiety. Co-citation patterns further suggest a progression from early AR applications and place-based designs toward explanations grounded in cognitive, affective, and neurocognitive mechanisms. Synthesizing these patterns, we propose an integrative Neurophysiological, Social, and Pedagogical framework (NSP framework) to connect internal processing, social conditions, and instructional orchestration in immersive language learning. The findings highlight future directions for multimodal process tracing, socially rich interaction design, and AI-enabled-and-agent-supported learning in immersive environments.