Musculoskeletal and Ergonomic Demands of the Pumping Maneuver in Laser-Class Sailing: An Integrated Biomechanical Analysis

Background: Pumping in Laser-class sailing is a dynamic propulsion technique used in marginal wind conditions and characterized by repetitive, coordinated oscillations of the sailor–sail system. Despite its practical relevance, its biomechanical and ergonomic demands remain insufficiently characterized. Methods: A mixed-methods framework was applied combining questionnaire data, kinematic analysis, ergonomic assessment, and musculoskeletal modelling. Thirty-six competitive Laser sailors completed a Borg CR-10-based questionnaire on perceived discomfort/fatigue across body regions at predefined time points (during pumping, immediately after training, and the following day). A controlled land-based multi-angle video acquisition was used to reconstruct a standardized pumping posture and parameterize a digital human model in DELMIA® for postural/kinematic analysis. Ergonomic risk was assessed using REBA, and muscle activity was estimated using the AnyBody® Modeling System (simulation-derived normalized muscle activity across 129 muscles). Results: the simulation identified high neuromuscular demand in the trunk and shoulder complex, with several deep trunk stabilizers and the left latissimus dorsi reaching 100% modeled normalized muscle activity. Marked lateral asymmetry was observed, with right-sided trunk dominance and left-sided shoulder dominance. Kinematic analysis showed substantial joint excursions, with large lumbar motion amplitudes, while REBA yielded a score of 11 (Very-High Risk). Questionnaire data indicated a high prevalence of pumping-related musculoskeletal discomfort (72.2%), most frequently involving the lower back, shoulders, and knees. A dissociation was observed between modeled muscle activity and perceived fatigue, with the lower limbs rated as most fatigued despite lower modeled activation than the trunk. Conclusions: Findings identify the deep trunk stabilizers, latissimus dorsi, and lower extremities as key regions involved in pumping, with marked lateral asymmetry and high ergonomic risk. They support targeted training, injury-prevention, and ergonomic strategies to improve performance and reduce injury risk in competitive sailing.