Indirect effects dominate ecosystem service losses in response to agricultural intensification

Feeding a growing human population while preventing biodiversity loss is a major challenge. Land conversion impacts multiple ecosystem services (ESs), including food production and biodiversity-dependent services; yet, the role of indirect effects on ESs within this context, such as parasitoids boosting crop yield by controlling herbivores, remains poorly understood. Using species-network data from an organic agroecosystem with multiple habitats, we simulated the effects of converting extensive to intensive crop production on multiple ESs. Projected land conversion increased crop yield by up to 191% but severely reduced other ESs (e.g., pollination by 95%). However, indirect effects on ES-providing species declined by 97%, revealing undescribed effects of habitat conversion. Comparison to a null model showed that the identity of species lost either mitigates or amplifies these effects, depending on the ES type. Uncovering how land-use changes shape direct and indirect interplay among multiple services is crucial for sustainable agroecosystem management.