Adaptive strategies for biodiversity monitoring integrating Indigenous ecological calendars and community science data

Integrating Indigenous and Western ecological knowledge can strengthen understanding of phenological patterns, yet this integration is often constrained by epistemological differences, power asymmetries, and histories of exclusion. We evaluated the potential of the Two-Eye Seeing guiding principle, which integrates the strengths of both knowledge systems, in ongoing biocultural conservation dialogues among local ethnographic leaders, Indigenous scholars, and Western researchers in ecology and anthropology. To identify similarities and differences between the two knowledge systems for success integration, we compared temporal patterns of bird species richness, composition, and relative abundance derived from a culturally embedded phenological device – an ecological calendar developed by the Pamiwã people – and from a community science initiative (eBird data contributed primarily by visiting avitourists). Our comparison revealed both convergence and divergence: phenological patterns in species richness and relative abundance for culturally important birds were broadly similar, whereas species composition varied across the year. These differences reflect distinct experiential approaches to observation. Indigenous observers ground their knowledge in culturally embedded experience and attention to environmental change, resource use, and bird behavior, whereas avitourists focus on personal encounters with more and rarer birds. Biocultural conservation requires integrative methods that are subject to interpretation and uncertainty. Acting as researchers and translators across disciplines, we demonstrate the opportunity to apply the Two-Eye Seeing guiding principle to integrate Indigenous and Western knowledges. This integration provides a tool for long-term monitoring that aligns global platforms such as eBird with local priorities for safeguarding biodiversity and cultural, ancestral, and spiritual values. Our findings highlight the value of iterative ecological calendars, framed by the Two-Eye Seeing guiding principle, as adaptive strategies for local communities to monitor biodiversity and manage their territories.