Is there (gendered) discrimination against parents in the hiring process? A meta-analysis of correspondence studies

Unlike race or gender, parenthood is not a distinct ground of protection under most anti-discrimination laws. Yet, evidence of motherhood penalties in the labor market is well documented. To systematically assess parenthood discrimination in employers' hiring decisions across countries and time, we conducted the first meta-analysis of correspondence studies in this field. We synthesized data from 23 studies (N = 65,440 applications) across 11 countries between 1978 to 2022. Using random-effects models, we calculate discrimination risk ratios and conducted subgroup analyses to examine variation by applicant characteristics, occupational context, and national family policies. Our main findings are: (I) Statistically significant status-based discrimination against parents is evident—but primarily driven by anticipated rather than realized parenthood, as it almost exclusively affects women. (II) These penalties are more pronounced in countries lacking supportive family policies, such as paid maternity leave and high female part-time employment. (III) While parents are not systematically penalized across occupations, women—independent of parental status—face discrimination in management roles, and (though not significantly) in highly qualified and male-dominated occupations.