Unpacking the Integration Paradox: The Impact of Muslim Religion, Destination Context, and Personal Characteristics on Perceived Discrimination

Perceived discrimination is the feeling of belonging to a group targeted by discrimination. This paper examines three mechanisms identified in the literature that contribute to this perception among migrants: exposure to actual discrimination through social contacts, language proficiency and awareness, and unmet aspirations. Using a subset of the European Social Survey dataset, which includes approximately 45,000 first- and second-generation migrants, we analyse the effects of individual characteristics (migrant generation, language skills, social contacts, education, and training) and contextual characteristics (integration policies) on perceived discrimination. Our findings reveal the existence of an "Integration Paradox," particularly for Muslim migrants. More integrated Muslim migrants, especially those from the second generation, report higher levels of perceived discrimination. We also find that the integration setting does not have a direct effect but moderates the relationship between migrant generation and perceived discrimination. Notably, second-generation Muslim migrants feel most discriminated against in countries with "intermediate" levels of integration policies, suggesting short-term unintended consequences of such policies. These findings underscore the importance of paying close attention to this group in the present and near future, especially given their steadily increasing presence in European societies.