Executive Functions, Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning – What are We Talking About? A Review and Introduction of the EMERGE Model

As students progress through school, they are expected to increasingly regulate their attention, behaviour and learning. While some meet these demands with ease, others face ongoing challenges that can hinder their academic success. Research has identified four key concepts in this area: executive functions (EF), metacognition (MC), self-regulation (SR) and self-regulated learning (SRL). Although these constructs are conceptually related, they have often been examined in isolation due to disciplinary and methodological divides, resulting in fragmented accounts that obscure their dynamic interplay. This review addresses this issue by providing a comparative overview of EF, MC, SR and SRL in terms of their definitions, how they are operationalised and the research designs used. Based on this synthesis, we introduce the EMERGE model of learning, which positions these constructs along a continuum ranging from more biologically grounded mechanics (e.g. EF) to more culturally shaped pragmatics (e.g. strategy knowledge in SRL). The model highlights both shared mechanisms and distinct functions and conceptualises SR in learning situations as an integrative construct. Building on this framework, we propose two guiding hypotheses: the stage-setting hypothesis, which emphasises long-term developmental interplay; and the compensatory hypothesis, which focuses on short-term interactions that predict learning outcomes. Together, these perspectives highlight the need for longitudinal, experimental and hybrid designs to capture developmental and dynamic processes. The EMERGE model thus aims to bridge fragmented research traditions, improve diagnostics, and inform interventions that effectively support students in meeting the growing demands of self-regulated and adaptive learning.