Gender Differences in Reading Comprehension and Motivation: Novel and Robust Evidence From a Meta-Analysis of Individual Participant Data From International Large-Scale Assessments

Gender differences in reading comprehension and motivation can contribute to disparities between genders in educational and occupational success, as well as in societal participation. Previous meta-analyses on gender differences in reading have had several limitations: They investigated only student samples, lacked recent international effect size estimates, and focused on printed texts and a narrow set of motivational constructs. To address these gaps, we synthesized representative individual participant data from international large-scale assessments conducted between 1990 and 2023, spanning 130 countries and including both student and adult populations (total N = 6,365,416). Overall, females outperformed males in reading comprehension (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 0.17) and reported higher reading motivation (SMD = 0.22). Moderator analyses provided novel evidence that the magnitude of these gender differences varies systematically by age, assessment format, construct operationalization, and contextual factors. Gender differences in both reading comprehension and motivation were more pronounced during adolescence but decreased for motivation and diminished for comprehension in adulthood. Gender differences in reading comprehension were smaller for digital than for printed texts, and gender differences in task values were larger than those in self-beliefs. From 1990 to 2023, motivation differences declined, whereas comprehension differences increased overall but narrowed during the COVID-19 pandemic. Greater national prosperity and higher participation of women in management positions and tertiary education were associated with larger advantages for females in comprehension, whereas motivation differences decreased as national prosperity rose. These findings provide the most comprehensive and robust evidence on gender differences in reading with important implications for research, practice, and policy.