Establishing causal inferences from experimental and observational data: A critical review and primer for sport and exercise psychology

Causal inference is a central goal of research in sport and exercise psychology. However, current norms in sport and exercise psychology privilege experimental designs over observational designs for deriving causal inferences. Causal inferences can be derived from either observational or experimental designs, given that the causal effect of interest is clearly specified, and particular assumptions are met. Drawing from contemporary theory and evidence in the causal inference domain, the purpose of this review is to promote broader thinking around causal inference in sport and exercise psychology. In addition to providing an overview of the systematic process of causal inference, guidance will be provided on the assumptions that underpin principled causal inference of mechanisms (i.e., mediation) from both experimental and observational designs, using examples tailored to the interests of sport and exercise psychology researchers.