Function of feedback information as positive or negative in observational motor learning: Toward a theoretical integration with individual motor learning

Theories of individual and observational motor learning have been developed separately. Hence, while the former is a history of feedback manipulation, the latter discounts feedback and relies on the functions of mirror neurons. In response to this trend, in recent years, feedback from the experience of sensitive motor control by others, which can be useful for one's own motor control, has been demonstrated using a jumping height adjustment task. The present study clarifies the similarities between the two learning theories by clarifying the role of knowledge of results (KR) and motor information obtained through observation, and by further incorporating the subjective-objective error perspective. When only KR is acquired, KR functions as positive feedback and moves away from ideal learning, whereas when KR and motor information, which is the process of producing the outcome, are acquired, they function as negative feedback and promote learning. These results can be explained by Thorndike's trial-and-error learning (1898) and Schmidt's schema theory (1975), which assume individual learning. Our findings provide insight into the integration of both theories, as well as suggest teachers and coaches on the importance of providing information about how the results were reached, not just formal knowledge, when transmitting motor tips.