Do Language Cues Shape Spatial–Numerical Associations? A Test of SNARC and MARC in Chinese–English Bilinguals

Spatial-numerical associations are often attributed to language, yet cross-cultural findings are confounded by reading direction and broader experience. We tested whether the language-of-presentation modulates the SNARC (small-left/large-right) and MARC (odd-left/even-right) effects using a within-participant Chinese-English bilingual design with number words. In Experiment 1 (magnitude classification; N=60), SNARC effects emerged in both Chinese (L1) and English (L2), with no reliable L1-L2 difference. In Experiment 2 (parity judgement; N=52), SNARC was not reliably observed in either language, highlighting task sensitivity. MARC effects were weak and did not differ between languages in either experiment. Individual-difference analyses revealed that earlier L2 acquisition was associated with stronger L2 SNARC, though this did not moderate L1-L2 contrasts. Together, the results place a lower bound on language-specific modulation of spatial-numerical mappings when format and reading direction are controlled, while experience-based mechanisms may additionally shape their strength.