Individual Differences in the Effects of Response Time-Adaptive Multiplication Practice: A Classroom Study on Experience and Effectiveness

Background. Multiplication is a key skill in primary education, but traditional teaching methods vary in effectiveness and may not suit individual needs. Adaptive learning systems personalise practice and promote the use of effective study strategies, with algorithms that adapt based on accuracy (accuracy-adaptive), or accuracy and speed (RT-adaptive). Incorporating response times should enable more precise adaptivity, leading to better learning. A prior study (n = 540) with both kinds of algorithm showed promising results, but did not compare them directly. Emphasising speed may also affect learners differently, especially those with attentional difficulties. Aims. This study evaluates whether practice with an RT-adaptive spaced repetition algorithm improves multiplication fluency, compared to a simpler accuracy-adaptive algorithm. Sample. Participants were 44 Dutch primary school pupils (grade 4; US grade 2; aged 7–8). The sample included participants with average and raised levels of hyperactivity/inattention.Methods. A within-subject experiment compared practice with accuracy- and RT-adaptive algorithms. We tested multiplication fluency before and after practice (immediately after and after a 1-week delay) and recorded participants’ subjective experiences.Results. Performance was better during RT-adaptive practice, but this difference did not translate to better immediate or delayed post-test outcomes.Hyperactivity/inattention levels did not affect performance but did influence experience: participants with raised levels reported more difficulty concentrating in the RT-adaptive condition.Conclusions. We found limited added value of RT-adaptive practice, but saw that individual differences influenced experiences of AI-supported learning. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of an effective application of AI in primary education that meets the needs of neurodiverse learners.