Interoceptive Rhythms and Perceptual Experience: Mechanisms, Contexts, and Strategies for Real-World Research

A growing body of evidence indicates that perception is shaped not only by external stimuli but also by rhythmic signals originating from the heart, lungs, and stomach. These ongoing internal bodily rhythms can modulate sensory processing, influencing both low-level detection and higher-order functions such as emotion recognition and social decision-making. The first part of this review outlines the physiology of each organ–brain axis and synthesizes current findings on how cardiac, respiratory, and gastric rhythms modulate perceptual experience. Altogether, current findings highlight the role of interoceptive rhythms in shaping moment-to-moment perceptual outcomes. Although these effects can differ based on specific task demands, a pattern emerges in the literature: in certain instances, perception may vary based on the dynamic distribution of signal processing resources between internal bodily states and external environmental stimuli. Acknowledging the limitations of existing experimental paradigms, the second part of this review seeks to build on these empirical findings by proposing strategies to improve the ecological validity and generalizability of interoception-perception research. Our analysis of participant demographics across the reviewed studies highlights the necessity for more diverse demographic representation. We also propose the integration of multimodal physiological recordings and wearable technologies, alongside the creation of more dynamic paradigms that can capture behaviors in real-world contexts. These recommendations are intended to enhance both the representativeness and ecological validity of interoception-perception research. By linking traditional laboratory paradigms with more naturalistic settings, this review and framework may pave the way for a deeper understanding of how interoceptive signals influence perception in everyday life. Last, we briefly explore emerging theoretical models that, when integrated with ecologically relevant designs, could provide a more comprehensive understanding of embodied cognition.