Residential environment and behavioral factors as underexplored determinants of cognitive reserve and cognitive functioning in older adults: A structural equation modeling approach

Aging is associated with progressive cognitive changes, although substantial interindividual variability exists in the trajectory and severity of cognitive decline. Cognitive reserve has been proposed as a key mechanism explaining why some individuals maintain relatively preserved cognitive functioning despite age-related or pathological brain alterations. While traditional determinants such as education, occupation, and lifestyle have been widely studied, the contribution of behavioral traits and environmental context, particularly residential environment, remains insufficiently understood. The present study investigated the relationships between cognitive reserve, cognitive functioning, and a range of sociodemographic, psychological, and environmental factors in 75 older adults from rural and urban areas of Aragón, Spain (mean age = 74.03 years). Participants completed assessments of global cognitive functioning (MMSE), cognitive reserve, impulsivity, mental health symptoms, loneliness, and engagement in sociocultural, physical, instrumental, and intellectual activities. Structural Equation Modeling was applied to explore the complex interrelationships among these variables. Results indicated that younger age, female sex, lower impulsivity, and rural residence were associated with higher cognitive reserve, whereas older age and greater impulsivity were linked to poorer cognitive functioning. Associations between lifestyle activities and cognitive reserve were attenuated after accounting for other predictors. Overall, these findings support a more integrative perspective on cognitive aging, highlighting the relevance of modifiable behavioral and environmental determinants and suggesting that factors such as impulsivity and environmental context may promote cognitive resilience.