Moisture-induced degradation of clay-bearing sandstone

Clay-bearing sandstones used in the construction of historic monuments, churches, and castles are highly susceptible to contour scaling, which manifests as fractures parallel to the exposed facades. Repeated wetting–drying cycles accelerate material degradation through stiffness reduction and hygric deformation induced by swelling clays. This in turn alters the hygro-thermal (HT) properties of the stone. In this study, a scalar damage variable is employed within the framework of continuum damage mechanics to characterize the evolving damage state under the influence of moisture fields. The most critical climatic conditions leading to degradation are first identified through hygrothermal simulations. Subsequently, a fully coupled hygro-thermo- mechanical (HTM) model is developed to account for both moisture transport and material degradation. The results demonstrate that contour scaling can occur solely due to moisture cycling, even in the absence of freezing or salt crystallization effects. Moreover, the predicted zones of damage localization and depths of water accumulation align well with on-site observations.