A Unified Engineering Model for Precision Stone Cutting and Architectural Alignment in Old Kingdom Megalithic Construction

This study presents a comprehensive engineering reconstruction of the methods used to cut, square, align, and precisely place multi-ton stone blocks in Old Kingdom Egyptian monumental construction. While individual techniques such as copper-saw abrasion, dolerite impact shaping, and geometric surveying are well-documented, they are rarely integrated into a unified engineering framework. This paper synthesizes material science, mechanical engineering, and archaeological evidence to demonstrate how ancient craftsmen achieved sub-millimeter joint tolerances and near-perfect cardinal orientation. The analysis includes abrasive cutting with quartz-sand slurry, controlled stone splitting via water-wedge expansion, dimensional standardization using rope-grid surveying, and right-angle formation with 3-4-5 integer-triangle geometry. Precision placement was accomplished through lever-based micro-adjustment, granular sand-jack microlifting, and compression-locking interface geometry. The resulting model explains the exceptional geometric accuracy observed in Old Kingdom monuments and provides a coherent, mechanically grounded system of quarrying, shaping, alignment, and installation—achieved without advanced metallurgy or modern instrumentation.