Beyond Mean Scores: Sex Differences in Literacy, Numeracy, and Problem-Solving as Intraindividual Strengths Across Age Groups
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The underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) remains a persistent issue. Research on mean scores of cognitive abilities has not adequately explained this disparity. Intraindividual strengths—an individual’s advantage in one skill (e.g., literacy) compared to a set of related skills (literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving)—have recently been proposed as a relevant factor. While prior studies have focused on younger cohorts, intraindividual strengths remain unexplored across the lifespan. Analyzing data from the second cycle of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, including 157,525 individuals from 30 countries, we assessed sex differences in literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving as intraindividual strengths across five age groups (16−24, 25−34, 35−44, 45−54, and 55+ years). Women outperformed men in literacy, while men outperformed women in numeracy across all countries and age groups. Policymakers and researchers should focus on intraindividual strengths to reduce sex disparities in STEM participation.
