Who favor in-group politicians? In-group voting in France, Germany and the Netherlands and the challenges to the descriptive and substantive representation of Muslims

Does sharing the same religion, migration background and gender impact voting in France, Germany and the Netherlands? Using survey experiments (N=3,058) and oversampling voters with a migration background (N=1,889/3,058), I explore this question from both majority and minority perspectives. Even when randomizing highly divisive policy positions, shared religion emerges as the most influential factor affecting voters. However, sharing the same migration background or gender has no discernible impact on voting likelihood. Interestingly, non-religious voters exhibit an in-group preference, slightly surpassing the preference shown by Muslim voters for in-group politicians, which varies significantly across countries. Notably, voters prioritize politicians who advocate their preferred policies, often in contrast to the positions supported by Muslim voters. These findings reveal challenges in achieving diversity in politics and minority representation, particularly concerning the political inclusion of Muslims.