Smart wearable devices for exhaled breath condensate harvesting and health monitoring

Exhaled breath condensate (EBC), a non-invasive biofluid that captures biomarkers from airway surface fluid, offers novel avenues for pathophysiological research and clinical management of respiratory and systemic diseases. Despite advancements in sample collection and detection, clinical translation remains hindered by critical challenges: inconsistent biomarker standardization leads to cross-study data variability, and the absence of miniaturized equipment limits real-time and portable monitoring. This review systematically synthesizes key EBC research domains: biomarker classification encompasses small molecules, inflammation-related proteins, and pathogens. Collection methods have evolved from passive cooling (e.g., R-Tube) to active strategies (Dynamic temperature control, inertial impact). Detection technologies leverage nanomaterials and microfluidics to achieve picogram-level sensitivity, shifting from single-analyte tests to multi-omics integration for comprehensive disease mechanism analysis. Wearable applications progress from proof-of-concept laboratory prototypes to scenario-specific designs, such as smart masks enabling real-time epidemic screening and continuous biomarker monitoring. A novel aspect of this review is its highlighting of EBC research as a ”technology cluster,” emphasizing the interdisciplinary integration of electrochemical, biotechnological, and AI-driven innovations alongside rigorous clinical validation. This framework addresses translational bottlenecks, positioning EBC as a transformative precision medicine tool enabling early disease screening, personalized diagnostics, and non-invasive dynamic monitoring—thereby bridging the divide between research and clinical practice.